THE  LIBRARY 

OF 

THE  UNIVERSITY 
OF  CALIFORNIA 


PRESENTED  BY 

PROF.  CHARLES  A.  KOFOID  AND 
MRS.  PRUDENCE  W.  KOFOID 


0.  J' 


COFFEE: 


ITS     HISTORY,    CULTIVATION, 


AND   USES. 


BY    ROBERT    HEWITT,    JR. 


ILLUSTRATED  WITH  ORIGINAL  DESIGNS  BY  EMINENT  AMERICAN  ARTISTS, 

AND  A  MAP  OF  THE  WORLD   SHOWING  THE  SEVERAL  PLACES  WHERE 

COFFEE  IS,   OR  MAY  BE  PRODUCED,   AND  WHERE   IT   IS  ALSO 

USED. 


NEW    YORK: 
D.   APPLETOIST  AKD   COMPANY, 

549  &  551  BROADWAY. 
1872. 


Entered  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1872, 

BY  ROBERT  HEWITT,  JK., 

In  the  Office  of  the  Librarian  of  Congress,  at  Washington,  D.  C. 
Right  of  translation  reserved. 


Hss 


TO 


WHOSE 


MERCANTILE  ABILITY  AND  HONORABLE  DEALING 

ENTITLE  HIM  TO 

j^IRST  j^ANK    AND    POSITION 

IN  THE 

COFFEE     TRADE, 

This  Work  is  Respectfully  Inscribed 

BY  THE  AUTHOS. 


JVJ358900 


CONTENTS 


PAGE 

PREFACE 7 

INTRODUCTORY 9 

THE  HISTORY  OF  THE  COFFEE-PLANT 14 

ITS  CULTIVATION  IN  VARIOUS  COUNTRIES 38 

ARABIA. 42 

EAST  INDIES 49 

SOUTH  AMERICA 59 

METHODS  OF  MAKING  COFFEE 66 

ANALYSIS  AND  ADULTERATION  OF  COFFEE 80 

TARIFFS  OF  VARIOUS  COUNTRIES 94 

STATISTICAL  TABLES  OF  COFFEE  . .  99 


PBEFACE. 


THE  reader  may  possibly  remember  among  the  charming  "  Essays 
of  Elia  "  one  entitled  "  A  Dissertation  on  roast  Pig,"  in  which  the 
writer,  with  true  epicurean  zest,  insists  upon  its  preferred  claims. 
Whether  the  reader's  taste  be  in  exact  accord  with  that  of  the 
essayist,  it  may  not  be  easy  to  determine;  but  who  can  fail  of 
being  delighted  with  his  treatment  of  the  subject?  It  is  with 
some  such  feeling  of  enthusiastic  interest  that  the  present  volume 
has  been  prepared,  and  in  a  similar  spirit  it  is  now  submitted  to 
the  candor  of  the  reader.  If  occasion  for  enthusiasm  is  found  in 
discussing  the  merits  of  roasted  pig,  surely  very  much  stronger  is 
the  argument  in  behalf  of  roasted  Coffee. 

Having  from  his  earliest  business  associations  been  personally 
connected  with  the  Coffee-trade,  the  writer  has  always  been  greatly 
interested  in  collecting  anything  relating  to  the  history,  cultiva- 
tion, or  uses  of  this  great  staple.  Long  impressed  with  the  idea 
that  the  mass  of  statistical  figures  that  accumulate  from  day  to 
day,  in  the  many  circulars  and  market  reports  received  by  those 
engaged  in  the  importation  and  sale  of  coffee,  tend  rather  to  con- 
fuse and  detract  from  the  importance  of  this  constantly  increasing 
branch  of  commerce,  the  following  pages  are  intended  to  give 
such  general  information  as  may  perhaps  interest  not  only  those 
who  are  familiar  with  the  business,  but  also  that  multitudinous 
class  to  whom  coffee  now  has  become  an  indispensable  beverage; 


Vlll  PKEFACE. 

but  who  for  the  most  part  may  not  be  familiar  with  its  history 
and  production.  In  a  word,  the  work  seeks  to  present,  in  a 
concise  yet  comprehensive  form,  all  that  relates  to  the  history 
and  cultivation  of  coffee  in  various  countries,  and  the  pernicious 
effects  of  its  adulteration.  The  best  authorities  have  been  con- 
sulted in  its  preparation;  and  it  is  to  be  hoped — since  it  has 
been  compiled  in  response  to  repeated  inquiries  for  some  such  a 
manual,  by  persons  engaged  in  the  coffee-trade — that  it  may  be 
found  acceptable. 

As  it  would  be  great  temerity  on  his  part,  after  what  has  been 
already  stated,  to  bespeak  for  the  volume  any  special  literary  merit, 
its  claims  upon  the  favor  of  the  reader  must  depend  mainly  upon 
the  intrinsic  value  of  its  statements  and  facts ;  its  typographic 
and  pictorial  character  will  bear  its  own  comment.  u  After  many 
erasures,  interlinings,  enlargings,  and  diminishings,"  it  is  at  last 
completed,  and,  as  it  is  the  first  attempt  of  a  novice,  it  is  deemed 
right  and  proper  to  say  (in  strictest  confidence)  that  his  vocation 
is  simply  that  of  a  coffee-broker,  one  of  that  numerous  fraternity 
whose  business  it  is  to  please  both  buyer  and  seller,  and  who 
should  be  informed  not  only  as  to  the  present  crop,  but,  to  satisfy 
some,  should  have  an  opinion,  when  it  is  called  for,  as  to  all 
coming  crops,  etc.,  when  chatting  in  the  odd  moments  pending  so 
momentous  a  transaction  as  a  purchase  or  a  sale  (quantity  not 
defined)  of  coffee.  In  fine,  worthy  reader,  having  thus  far  de- 
tained thee  with  a  relation  of  the  intent  and  purpose  of  the  fol- 
lowing pages,  it  only  remains,  by  thy  courtesy,  to  venture  the 
hope  that  what  is  now  presented  concerning  the  little  aromatic 
berry  may  linger  as  pleasantly  on  thy  mind  and  memory  as  a 
fragrant  draught  of  its  infusion  does  upon  thy  palate. 

KOBEET  HEWITT,  JK. 


•  Coffee  !  oh,  Coffee  !  Faith,  it  is  surprising, 

'Mid  all  the  poets,  good  and  bad  and  worse, 
Who've  scribbled  (Hock  or  Chian  eulogizing) 

Post  and  papyrus  with  '  immortal  verse,' — 
Melodiously  similitudinizing 

In  Sapphics  languid,  or  Alcaics  terse,— 
No  one,  my  little  brown  Arabian  berry, 

Hath  sung  thy  praises,— 'tis  surprising,  very  ! " 


Is  not  the  very  name,  COFFEE,  suggestive 
of  aromatic  odors?     Is  it  not,  indeed,  the 
fragrant  incense  we  proffer  at  the   shrine 
of   the  social  hearth, — the  delicious  libation 
which  we  pour  on  the  altar  of  friendship  ?    Talk 
of  the  famed  Falernian  wine  of   the  ancients,  or  the  nectar 

and  ambrosia  of    the  gods ;    what  were   they  to  a  delectable 
1* 


10  INTRODUCTORY. 

draught  of  this  world-renowned  decoction  ?  Is  it  not  the  luxu- 
rious accompaniment  of  the  chibouk  and  the  cigar,  and  one  of 
the  indispensable  symbols  of  the  hospitalities  and  amenities  of 
life?  Yes,  better  far  than  the  Bacchanalian  cup  of  old  is 
this  non-inebriating  draught,  since  it  may  be  indulged  with 
impunity; — for  while  it  refreshes  and  stimulates,  it  does  not 
stultify  the  mind.  Wine,  doubtless,  inspired  the  ancient  muse, 
and  not,  indeed,  the  ancient  poets  only;  and  poetry,  which 
has  been  styled  "  the  wine  of  the  mind,"  was  put  into  compe- 
tition, in  olden  time,  for  the  prize  of  a  cask  of  wine ;  while 
the  Bacchic  hymn  was  styled  the  "  hymn  of  the  cask."  The 
poets-laureate  have  also,  from  the  minstrel-monk,  Chaucer, 
down  to  their  living  representative  in  England,  continued  to 
receive  their  "  pipe  of  wine ; "  from  all  which  it  seems  that  the 
bards  do  not  solely  seek  inspiration  from  the  Heliconian  fount ! 
As  a  salutary  beverage  coffee  has  never,  perhaps,  been  duly 
estimated,  since  it  is  not  only  a  digestive  drink,  but  it  has 
suppressed  to  a  great  extent  that  excessive  indulgence  in 
inebriating  draughts,  that  so  frequently  dishonored  the  ban- 
quets and  prodigal  hospitalities  of  former  times. 

"  Yes,  the  wine's  a  wayward  child, — 
This  the  cup  that  '  draws  it  mild  ! ' 
Deeply  drink  its  stream  divine, 
Fill  the  cup — but  not  with  wine, — 
Potent  port,  or  fiery  sherry;  — 
For  this  milder  cup  of  mine, 
Crush  me  Yemen's  fragrant  berry  !  " 

Not  alone  in  the  East  is  the  amber  beverage  indispensable ; 
it  has  also  become  a  positive  necessity  in  all  the  great  capitals 
of  Europe,  as  well  as  with  all  classes  throughout  the  length  and 
breadth  of  our  own  land.  It  has  been  w^ell  said  by  a  recent 
writer,  in  one  of  our  leading  periodicals, — "  that  the  proud  son 
of  the  highest  civilization  can  no  longer  live  happily  without 
the  coffee  of  African  robbers,  the  tobacco  of  the  red  barbarians, 


INTRODUCTORY.  11 

the  tea  of  the  despised  Chinese,  and  the  sugar  of  the  wretched 
Hindoo  or  enslaved  negro.  He  cannot  break  his  fast  without 
coffee,  nor  finish  his  dinner ;  and  the  whole  social  life  of  many 
nations  is  based  upon  the  insignificant  bean."  The  magic 
drink,  which  has  held  such  unlimited  sway  over  the  social 
hospitalities  of  mankind  for  centuries,  has  also  ministered  to 
the  relief  of  innumerable  despairing  dyspeptics,  and  achieved 
an  incalculable  amount  of  good,  in  rendering  people  more 
happy,  and  on  better  terms  writh  themselves  and  everybody 
else,  as  well  as  more  thoroughly  equipped  for  encountering 
the  battle  of  life.  It  is  also  suggestive  of  pleasant  memories 
and  visions  of  joyous,  smiling  groups  that  have  graced  the 
festive  board,  and  shared  with  ourselves  those  genial  "  moods 
and  tenses  "  that  constitute  much  of  the  poetry  of  life.  If  the 
dreamy  Mohammedan  delights  to  divide  his  hours  between  the 
rival  fascinations  of  his  fragrant  cup  and  the  aroma  of  his 
"  witching  weed  "  in  solemn  silence,  we  of  the  Western  World 
find  in  this  favorite  beverage  a  delightful  auxiliary  to  some  oi 
our  purest  social  pleasures.  Its  influence  upon  the  social 
habits  and  intellectual  culture  of  the  a^e  is  a  beneficent  one. 

O  7 

for  it  not  only  exhilarates  the  mind,  but  it  also  acts  as  a  gentle 
stimulant,  recuperative  and  sustaining  to  the  physical  frame. 
Since  cotton  has  been  proclaimed  "  king  "  in  the  realm  of  com- 
merce, coffee  should  be  styled  "  queen  "  among  the  beverages 
of  domestic  life.  True,  tea  takes  prominent  rank  with  many 
of  the  gentler  sex,  yet  its  fair  fame  has  been  traditionally 
suggestive  of  a  love  of  scandal ;  while  the  aromatic  berry  is 
wholly  free  from  such  a  stigma,  j  Had  the  learned  lexicogra 
pher  been  less  prodigal  in  his  use  of  tea,  and  indulged  himself 
with  a  frequent  cup  of  fragrant  coffee,  he  doubtless  would 
have  exhibited  less  asperity  and  angularity  of  character,  and 
might  have  become  as  genial  as  he  was  wise.  Like  coffee, 
tobacco  is  also  a  potent  plant ; — both  alike  hold  absolute  sway 


12  INTRODUCTORY. 

over  millions  of  mankind;  yet,  yielding  too  freely  to  the 
seductive  influence  of  the  narcotic  weed,  we  may  have  to  suffer 
the  penalty,  while  with  the  aromatic  berry  nature  is  rarely  in 
revolt.  The  one  stimulates  but  to  enervate ;  the  other  refreshes 
and  sustains.  Coffee  also  is  a  better  disinfectant  than  tobacco. 

In  the  olden  time,  when  the  "  occult  sciences,"  so  called,  were 
in  vogue  with  the  learned  as  well  as  the  superstitious,  women 
indulged  implicit  faith  in  omens,  premonitions,  and  "  signs." 
In  Brande's  "  Antiquities,"  allusion  is  made  to  a  curious  species 
of  divination  by,  or  tossing  of,  coffee-grounds.  The  narrator 
relates  a  visit  he  paid  to  a  lady  ; — "  whom  he  surprised  with 
her  company  in  close  cabal  over  their  coffee,  the  rest  very  in- 
tent upon  one  whom  by  her  address  and  intelligence  he  guessed 
was  a  tire-woman,  to  which  she  added  the  secret  of  divining  by 
coffee-grounds.  She  was  then  in  full  inspiration,  and  with 
much  solemnity  observing  the  atoms  around  the  cup ;  on  the 
one  hand  sat  a  widow,  on  the  other  a  maiden  lady.  .  .  .  They 
assured  him  that  every  cast  of  the  cup  is  a  picture  of  all  one's 
life  to  come,  and  every  transaction  and  circumstance  is  delinea- 
ted with  the  exactest  certainty,"  etc.  The  same  practice  is  also 
noticed  in  the  Connoisseur,  where  a  girl  is  represented  divining 
to  find  out  of  what  rank  her  husband  should  be  : — "  I  have  seen 
him  several  times  in  coffee-grounds,  with  a  sword  by  his  side ; 
and  he  was  once  at  the  bottom  of  a  tea- cup,  in  a  coach-and-six, 
with  two  footmen  behind  it !  " 

Leigh  Hunt  thus,  pleasantly  discourses  upon  our  subject: 
"  Coffee,  like  tea,  used  to  form  a  refreshment  by  itself,  some 
hours  after  dinner  ;  it  is  now  taken  as  a  digester,  right  upon 
that  meal  dr  the  wine,  and  sometimes  does  not  even  close  it ; 
or  the  digester  itself  is  digested  by  a  liqueur  of  some  sort 
called  a  chasse-cafe  (coffee-chaser).  We  like  coffee  better  than 
tea  for  the  taste,  but  tea  4  for  a  constancy.'  To  be  perfect  in 
point  of  relish  (we  do  not  say  of  wholesomeness),  coffee  should 


INTRODUCTORY.  13 

be  strong  and  hot,  with  little  milk  and  sugar.  It  has  been  drunk 
after  this  mode  in  some  parts  of  Europe,  but  the  public  have 
nowhere,  we  believe,  adopted  it.  The  favorite  way  of  taking 
it  as  a  meal,  abroad,  is  with  a  great  superfluity  of  milk — very 
properly  called,  in  France,  cafe-au-lait  (coffee  to  the  milk). 
One  of  the  pleasures  we  receive  in  drinking  coffee  is  that, 
being  the  universal  drink  in  the  East,  it  reminds  of  that  region 
of  the  (  Arabian  Nights,'  as  smoking  does  for  the  same  reason ; 
though  neither  of  these  refreshments,  which  are  identified  with 
Oriental  manners,  is  to  be  found  in  that  enchanting  work. 
They  had  not  been  discovered  when  it  was  written ;  the  drink 
then  was  sherbet.  One  can  hardly  fancy  what  a  Turk  or  a 
Persian  could  have  done  without  coffee  and  a  pipe,  any  more 
than  the  English  ladies  and  gentlemen,  before  the  civil  wars, 
without  tea  for  breakfast." 

Thus  much,  then,  may  suffice  as  our  "  apology  "  for  propos- 
ing to  the  reader  to  accompany  us  in  our  rapid  survey  of  the 
career  of  coffee  over  the  globe,  since  its  first  discovery.  What 
we  have  here  gleaned  from  a  great  variety  of  sources  concern- 
ing the  fragrant  berry,  has  been  to  the  compiler  by  no  means  a 
theme  devoid  of  interest ;  but  should  the  reader  not  be  of  the 
same  opinion,  it  may  not  be  inappropriate  to  suggest  that, 
before  committing  to  him  the  results  of  our  researches,  he 
should  fortify  himself  with  a  cup  of  the  inspiring  beverage, 
and  thus  be  put  into  true  sympathy  with  the  subject. 


to 


§§ 


^ 


Sfe 


fe^  € 


r 


FAMILIAR  as  we  all  are  with 
Coffee   as   a  beverage,   yet  com- 
paratively how  few   of    us   ever 
imagine  that    its  history   can  be 
found  to   possess   any  particular 
r  I       interest,   or    deserve    any    especial 
notice.  We  sip  the  aromatic  draught 
when  athirst,  and  derive  from  it  a  sense 
of  renewed  vigor  wrhen  aweary ;  but  when 
is   our   curiosity  provoked,   or   prompted 
^-s"  to   inquire,   as    to    who  was   the  benefactor 

that  first  discovered  its   virtues,  where   it  first  grew,  and   by 
what  curious   process   or   manipulation    we   derive    the   deli- 


THE  HISTORY  OF   COFFEE.  15 

clous  drink  \  Everything  has,  indeed,  its  history  or  tradition, 
and  so  has  the  fragrant  little  berry,  the  aromatic  incense  of 
which  so  gratefully  greets  our  olfactory  nerve,  at  the  repast 
which  ushers  in  the  dawn  and  close  of  day. 

Coffee,  it  appears,  became  known  to  civilization  at  an  epoch 
memorable  for  many  marvellous  events.  It  was  about  the  time 
of  the  great  awakening  of  mankind  from  the  long  slumbers  of 
the  Middle  Ages,  when  those  great  luminaries,  Columbus  and 
Faust,  blazed  upon  the  world.  One  brought  to  light  a  new 
hemisphere,  and  the  other  gave  to  mankind  the  "  art  preserva- 
tive of  arts,"  and  the  light  of  intelligence  to  the  whole  civilized 
globe.  Coffee  was  originally  known  by  the  name  of  JTauM, 
an  orthography  somewhat  suggestive  of  a  certain  Town  Council- 
lor of  Leeds,  who,  writing  out  a  "  bill  of  fare "  for  a  public 
breakfast,  contrived 'to  spell  coffee  without  employing  a  single 
letter  that  occurs  in  that  word,  thus — Kawphy  !  Although  the 
plant  or  tree  is  indigenous  to  Southern  Abyssinia,  where  it  is 
even  to  the  present  day  cultivated,  yet  it  derived  its  name  from 
Kaffa,  in  Eastern  Africa,  where  the  plant  also  grows  wild,  and 
very  abundantly.  The  Malays,  who  from  their  intercourse  with 
the  Arabs  have  long  known  the  berry,  call  it  by  the  Arabian 
name,  Kawah /  the  Javanese,  however,  in  common  with  our- 
selves, designate  it  Coffee.  There  is  an  Eastern  legend  which 
ascribes  the  discovery  of  the  berry  to  a  Dervish  named  Hadji 
Omer,  who,  in  the  year  1285,  being  driven  out  of  Mocha, 
was  induced,  in  the  extremity  of  hunger,  to  roast  the  berries 
which  grew  near  his  hiding-place.  He  ate  them,  as  the  only 
means  of  sustaining  life ;  and  steeping  the  roasted  berries  in 
water,  to  quench  his  thirst,  he  thus  discovered  their  agreeable 
qualities,  and  also  that  the  infusion  was  nearly  equal  to  solid 
food.  His  persecutors,  who  had  intended  that  he  should  die  of 
starvation,  regarded  his  preservation  as  a  miracle.  He  was  ac- 
cordingly transmuted  into  a  saint  forthwith  ! 


16  THE  HISTORY  OF   COFFEE. 

According  to  the  manuscript  of  Schehabeddin  Ben,  an 
Arabian  Scribe  of  the  ninth  century  of  the  Hegira,  or  the 
fifteenth  of  the  Christian  era,  which  manuscript  is,  or  was,  in 
the  great  Library  of  the  city  of  Paris,  we  learn  that  a  certain 
Mufti,  or  Mohammedan  high-priest,  named  Gemal  Eddin,  of 
Aden,  a  town  of  Arabia  Felix,  was  the  first  who  introduced  to 
his  countrymen  the  custom  of  coffee-drinking.  Having  returned 
from  visiting  Persia,  where  he  had  observed  the  beverage  used 
as  a  medicine,  and  being  at  the  time  himself  sick,  he  tried  as  an 
experiment  a  dose  of  the  "  black  draught."  Finding  it  both 
curative  and  exhilarating,  he  forthwith  turned  his  discovery 
to  good  account,  by  applying  its  virtues  as  an  antidote  to  the 
torpor  and  drowsiness  of  his  monks,  whom  he  had  often  found 
dormant  at  their  devotions. 

The  example  and  authority  of  the  Mufti  at  once  conferred  on 
coffee  a  reputation,  and  it  speedily  came  into  general  use,  not 
only  on  account  of  its  sleep-dispelling  power,  but  also  for  its 
other  good  qualities.  Coffee,  which  had  been  in  use  in  Ethiopia, 
it  is  believed,  from  time  immemorial,  was  carried  by  the  Der- 
vishes to  Mecca,  where  the  beverage  became  so  popular  with  the 
sons  of  the  prophet  that  its  fame  soon  extended  to  other  towns 
adjacent.  It  continued  its  career  through  Syria,  and  was  re- 
ceived without  opposition  at  Damascus  and  Aleppo,  and  in 
the  year  1554  became  the  favorite  drink  at  Constantinople, 
where,  soon  after,  coffee-houses  were  opened. 

In  the  same  proportion  that  the  coffee-houses  were  thronged, 
the  mosques  became  deserted ;  and  the  priests  represented  that 
no  doubt  the  new  drink  was  forbidden  by  the  Koran,  for  that 
the  roasted  berry  \vas  certainly  a  kind  of  coal,  and  that  as  such 
it  was  prohibited  by  the  Prophet's  law.  The  Mufti,  on  a  peti- 
tion to  this  effect,  without  hesitation  decided  that  coffee  was 
coal ;  nevertheless,  in.  spite  of  frequent  enactments  against  it,  the 
people  continued  to  drink  it.  The  exertions  of  the  police  were 


THE  HISTORY  OF   COFFEE.  IT 

ineffectual,  and  the  government  was  at  length  contented  to  re- 
strain its  use  merely  by  rigid  sumptuary  laws.  Coffee  was 
taxed,  and  the  black  draught  was  allowed  to  be  drunk  in  secret. 
But  ere  long  another  Mufti  arose,  of  a  less  antiphlogistic  turn, 
and  he  pronounced  coffee  not  coal,  but  a  right  remunerative 
item  of  government  tax.  At  a  later  day,  when  too  much  free- 
dom of  political  discussion  took  place  in  the  Oriental  coffee- 
houses, they  were  suppressed  by  the  Grand  Vizier;  yet  the 
beverage  continued  to  be  almost  universally  used,  some  persons 
taking  even  twenty  dishes  of  it  in  a  day — the  dishes,  however, 
were  small.  The  lower  classes  also  actually  begged  money  for 
coffee ;  and  it  is  added  by  the  chronicler  of  the  time,  that  "  the 
refusing  to  supply  a  wife  with  coffee  was  admitted  in  law  as  a 
valid  cause  of  divorce."  From  the  "  city  of  the  Sultan  "  it  passed 
to  Western  Europe,  but  at  what  precise  time,  historians  have 
not  positively  determined.  It  is  believed  to  have  been  intro- 
duced into  Venice  about  the  year  1615.  In  1644  it  was  known 
at  Marseilles,  M.  de  la  Haye  having  taken  with  him  some  of  the 
coffee-beans  from  Constantinople,  with  vessels  and  an  apparatus 
for  making  the  beverage. 

The  traveller  Thevenot  was  among  the  first  to  introduce  into 
Paris  the  custom  of  taking  coffee  after  dinner ;  but  he  had  few 
imitators  until  ten  years  after, — about  1668,  when  the  coffee 
parties  of  the  Turkish  ambassador  at  Paris  brought  the  bever- 
age into  fashion.  "  The  brilliant  porcelain  cups,"  says  Disraeli, 
"  in  which  it  is  poured, — the  napkins  fringed  with  gold,  and  the 
Turkish  slaves,  on  their  knees,  presenting  it  to  the  ladies,  seat- 
ed on  the  ground  on  cushions, — turned  the  heads  of  the  Parisian 
dames,"  the  exotic  soon  became  a  subject  of  general  conver- 
sation, and  a  cafe  was  opened  for  the  sale  of  the  beverage,  in 
1671,  by  an  Armenian  of  the  name  of  Pascal.  The  enterprise 
did  not  succeed,  however,  on  account  of  the  heterogeneous  com- 
pany that  met  there.  A  few  years  later,  Procope,  a  Florentine, 


18  THE  HISTORY  OF  COFFEE. 

who  became  noted  as  an  arbiter  of  taste  in  such  matters,  opened 
a  splendid  saloon,  at  which  the  rank  and  fashion  of  the  French 
capital  used  to  assemble. 

Soon  the  cafe  became  the  resort  of  the  most  renowned  wits, 
artists,  and  philosophers  of  the  French  metropolis — Rousseau, 
Yoltaire,  Piron,  with  Marmontel  and  many  others.  The  univer- 
sal favor  in  which  coffee  is  still  held  in  Paris,  sufficiently  dis- 
proves the  accuracy  of  the  famous  prophecy  of  Madame  de 
Sevigne, — that  "coffee  and  Racine  would  have  their  day." 
Among  the  most  noted  of  the  Parisian  cafe's  were  those  known 
as  the  Cafe  des  Mille  Colonnes,  and  the  Cafe  Turc,  on  the 
Boulevard,  which  were  fitted  up  with  oriental  splendor,  as  glit- 
tering with  ornament  as  an  opium-eater's  dreams,  or  the  glow- 
ing tints  of  a  page  of  Vatliek. 

The  high  favor  with  which  coffee  came  at  length  to  be  re- 
garded in  the  houses  of  the  great,  may  be  inferred  from  the 
fact  that  a  sum  equivalent  to  $15,000  a  year  was  expended  for 
supplying  the  daughters  of  Louis  XY.  of  France  with  the  bev- 
erage. In  1714  the  magistrates  of  Amsterdam  presented  Louis 
XIY.  with  a  coffee-tree,  which  was  sent  to  the  Royal  Gardens. 
It  was  Louis  XIY.  who  directed  M.  Des  Clieux  to  take  one  of  the 
plants  to  Martinique,  one  of  the  French  West  India  possessions. 
The  voyage  proved  so  tempestuous  and  prolonged  that  he  was 
compelled  to  divide  his  water-rations  with  it,  in  order  to  keep  it 
alive.  From  that  parent  plant  an  immense  progeny  has  sprung. 

The  consumption  of  coffee  in  the  French  capital  at  the 
breaking  out  of  the  Revolution  was  something  enormous.  "We 
find  it  estimated  that  the  French  West  India  Islands  furnished 
no  less  than  eighty  millions  of  pounds  of  it  yearly,  and  this  was 
irrespective  of  a  liberal  supply  from  the  East.  The  two 
sources  combined  were  not  even  adequate  to  the  supply  of  the 
demand.  We  are  not  surely  to  infer  from  this  circumstance 
that  coffee  itself  possesses  any  Revolutionary  element. 


THE  HISTORY  OF   COFFEE.  19 

It  was  to  this  extraordinary  demand  for  coffee  that  the  adul- 
terations of  the  berry  may  be  traced ; — the  adulterers  made  for- 
tunes by  their  combination  of  chiccory  with  it,  but  the  well- 
earned  reputation  of  the  French  suffered  by  the  admixture. 

At  the  "  Cafe  Procope,"  the  earliest  of  these  establishments 
in  Paris,  a  curious  incident,  worth  mentioning,  occurred  con- 
cerning a  cup  of  coffee.  As  M.  Saint  Foix  was  one  day  seated 
at  his  usual  table  in  this  cafe,  an  officer  of  the  king's  body-guard 
entered,  sat  down,  and  ordered  a  cup  of  coffee,  with  milk  and  a 
roll,  adding,  "  It  will  serve  me  for  a  dinner ! "  At  this  Saint 
Foix  remarked  aloud,  "  that  a  cup  of  coffee,  with  milk  and  a 
roll,  was  a  confoundedly  poor  dinner."  The  officer  remonstrated. 
Saint  Foix  reiterated  his  remark,  adding,  that  nothing  he  could 
say  to  the  contrary  would  convince  him  that  it  was  not  a  con- 
foundedly poor  dinner.  Thereupon  a  challenge  was  given 
and  accepted,  and  the  whole  company  present  adjourned  as 
spectators  of  a  fight,  which  ended  by  Saint  Foix  receiving  a 
wound  in  the  arm.  "  That  is  all  very  well,"  said  the  wounded 
combatant, "  but  I  call  you  to  witness,  gentlemen,  that  I  am  still 
profoundly  convinced  that  a  cup  of  coffee,  with  milk  and  a  roll, 
is  a  confoundedly  poor  dinner ! "  At  this  moment  the  principals 
were  arrested  and  carried  before  the  Duke  de  Noailles,  in  whose 
presence  St.  Foix,  without  waiting  to  be  questioned,  said,  "  Mon- 
seigneur,  I  had  not  the  slightest  intention  of  offending  the  gal- 
lant officer,  who,  I  doubt  not,  is  an  honorable  man,  but  your 
Excellency  can  never  prevent  my  asserting  that  a  cup  of  coffee, 
with  milk  and  a  roll,  is  a  confoundedly  poor  dinner." — "  Why, 
so  it  is,"  said  the  Duke.  "  Then  I  am  not  in  the  wrong,"  per- 
sisted St.  Foix,  "  and  a  cup  of  coffee," — at  these  words  magis- 
trates, delinquents,  and  auditory  burst  into  a  roar  of  laughter, 
and  the  antagonists  became  forthwith  warm  friends.  The  oldest 
cafe  in  the  Palais  Royal  is  the  celebrated  "  Cafe  de  Foy,"  so 
called  from  the  name  of  its  founder.  Carl  Yernet  was  one  of 


20  THE  HISTORY   OF   COFFEE. 

its  most  constant  patrons.  He  was  there  on  one  occasion  when 
some  repairs  were  going  on,  and  in  his  impatience  he  flung  a 
wet  coloring-brush  from  him  which  struck  the  ceiling  and  left  a 
spot.  He  immediately  ascended  the  ladder,  and  with  a  touch 
of  his  finger  converted  the  stain  into  a  swallow ;  and  his  handi- 
work was  to  be  seen  until  the  recent  siege  of  Paris.  It  was 

« 

before  this  cafe  that  Desmoulins  harangued  the  rnob,  in  July, 
1789,  with  such  effect  that  they  took  up  arms,  destroyed  the 
Bastille,  and  inaugurated  the  fearful  scenes  of  the  Revolution. 
The  Germans  were  initiated  into  the  practice  of  coffee-drinking 
by  their  neighbors  the  French,  and  also  by  the  Dutch.  The 
beverage  did  not,  however,  become  popular  with  them  until  the 
Elector  of  Brandenburg  caused  its  virtues  and  praises  to  be 
celebrated  in  a  book,  which  he  disseminated  among  the  people. 
We  have  already  spoken  of  the  devotion  of  the  Turk  to  this 
drink,  now  almost  the  universal  beverage  of  the  East.  It  is 
difficult  to  transfer  ourselves  in  thought  and  feeling  to  the 
glowing  scenes  of  the  Orient.  Imagine  yourself  peering  into 
one  of  the  brilliant  divans  of  the  "  City  of  the  Sultan,"  with  its 
tessellated  court-yard,  and  its  towering  pinnacle  or  minaret, 
nestled  among  mulberry  trees  and  pomegranates.  In  the  cen- 
tre of  the  richly  decorated  saloon  is  the  cooling  fountain,  which 
scatters  its  silvery  spray  and  fantastic  foam  over  groups  of  bril- 
liant flowers,  while  on  every  side  the  eye  is  regaled  with  varie- 
gated marbles,  magnificent  arabesques,  and  gaudy  hangings, 
relieved  with  gilded  devices  of  matchless  beauty.  In  some  such 
circumstances  of  luxurious  splendor  may  be  seen  the  indolent 
Osmanli  regaling  himself  with  his  favorite  weed,  and  a  cup  of 
his  unmixed  Mocha  silently  brought  to  him  by  his  Nubian  slave, 
in  brilliant  costume.  Among  the  surrounding  groups  are  some 
Arabs  at  chess,  while  others  may  be  listening  to  one  of  the 
famous  Oriental  story-tellers,  or  gazing  at  the  tricks  of  some 
juggler,  or  witnessing  the  exploits  of  a  dancing  dervish.  But 


THE  HISTORY  OF   COFFEE.  21 

silence,  indolence,  and  stolidity  are  the  prevailing  characteris- 
tics of  the  Turkish  divan.  In  Persia,  however,  the  scene  is 
changed ;  there  the  coffee-houses  are  full  of  stir  and  activity. 
Soon  after  morning  prayers  are  announced  from  the  minaret,  the 
people  flock  to  their  coffee-houses,  which  are  often  beautifully 
decorated,  and  there  they  sip  their  coffee,  smoke,  and  listen  to 
the  wise  sayings  of  Sadi,  or  the  songs  of  Hafiz,  or  talk  over  the 
news  of  the  hour. 

Those  who  have  visited  the  Havana  and  roamed  through 
that  delightful  city  will  remember  with  pleasurable  sensations 
the  magnificent  cafes,  and  especially  the  "  Louvre."  Sauntering 
from  the  city  gates,  where  the  white-clad  officials,  with  Panama 
hats,  demand  from  all  travellers  landing  from  the  steamers  a 
silver  fee  for  permission  to  remain  a  certain  number  of  days 
upon  the  island,  the  "  looker-on  at  Vienna  "  strolls  through  the 
lovely  "  Plaza  de  Armas "  with  its  fountains  and  its  flowers ; 
halts  for  a  few  moments  on  the  paved  walks,  and  while  lis- 
tening to  the  music  of  the  military  band,  admires  the  beautiful 
faces  and  graceful  toilets  of  the  fair  promenaders,  who  pass 
and  repass  under  the  lamps,  enjoying  the  tropical  twilight. 
Taking  a  victoria,  which  is  the  popular  vehicle  always  to  be 
found  ready  to  convey  passengers  to  any  part  of  the  city,  he  is 
whirled  past  the  palace  of  the  Governor-General,  and  through 
narrow  streets,  between  the  massive  walls  of  houses  on  either 
side,  until  he  alights  at  the  "  Louvre."  This  cafe  is  situated 
opposite  the  Tacon  theatre,  which  is  known  for  its  elegance 
of  construction  and  rich  appointments.  Facing  it  is  a 
splendid  park,  used  as  a  promenade  during  the  evening, 
when  it  is  brilliantly  illuminated.  It  is  the  fashionable  resort 
for  promenaders.  The  scene  is  worth  witnessing,  presenting 
a  changing  panorama  of  brilliant  variety,  while  richly  ap- 
pointed equipages,  volantes  and  other  vehicles,  all  gayly 
equipped,  are  constantly  passing. 


22  THE  HISTORY   OF   COFFEE. 

Leaving  the  victoria,  which,  has  by  this  time  obtained 
another  fare,  the  cafe  with  its  open  doors  attracts  attention. 
Entering  the  grand  saloon  on  the  first  floor,  level  with  the 
narrow  sidewalks,  which  permit  only  one  pedestrian  to  pass 
comfortably  at  a  time,  the  visitor  seats  himself  at  one  of  the 
small  marble-covered  tables  that  are  plentifully  distributed 
over  the  tiled  floor ;  and  whatever  the  temperature  of  the 
streets  may  be,  the  cafes  are  always  cool,  and  at  them  may  be 
met,  at  certain  hours  of  the  day,  many  English  and  American 
visitors  and  residents.  Immediately  when  seated,  one  of  the 
attendants  approaches  and  politely  asks,  in  Spanish,  for  orders ; 
an  attempt  to  make  the  waiter  comprehend  English  will 
generally  meet  with  signal  failure.  While  enjoying  the 
delicious  coffee  and  a  choice  cigar,  the  visitor  looks  about 
the  saloon,  which  is  fitted  up  in  a  style  of  magnificence  out- 
rivalling  all  other  cafes  in  the  city.  At  each  of  the  small 
tables  are  groups  of  Spaniards,  Cubans,  Germans,  Englishmen, 
and  Americans,  with  here  and  there  an  officer  in  brilliant 
uniform,  all  chatting,  drinking  coffee,  or  sipping  light  wines, 
and  each,  with  rare  exceptions,  fondling  a  cigar.  All  over 
this  interesting  city,  more  especially  in  the  older  portion  of  it, 
inside  the  now  nearly  obliterated  lines  of  ancient  walls,  the 
cafes  confront  the  passer-by  at  nearly  every  square.  "Watching 
an  old  coffee-drinker  in  the  "  Louvre  "  one  day,  he  was  seen  to 
carefully  drop  the  white  lumps  of  sugar  into  his  cup  until  the 
top  of  the  sweet  pile  rose  just  above  the  rich  yellow  fluid,  and 
then  gently  rubbing  his  palms  together,  he  prepared  himself  to 
enjoy  the  nectar.  "  La  Dominica  "  was  formerly  the  favorite 
cafe,  but  it  has  of  late  years  been  superseded  by  more  modern 
establishments ;  it  is  still  however  well  patronized,  but  makes 
more  of  a  specialty  in  manufacturing  "  dulces  "  or  sweetmeats, 
which  have  a  world-wide  reputation,  especially  the  guava 
jelly,  most  of  which  comes  from  this  entrepot.  The  Havanese 


THE  HISTORY  OP  COFFEE.  23 

understand  pretty  well  how  to  make  and  drink  coffee,  and 
never  hesitate  to  avail  themselves  of  its  invigorating  influence. 
"When  dwellers  in  the  tropics — not  only  in  this  delightful  island 
but  wherever  coffee  is  grown — once  learn  how  to  make  coffee 
in  perfection,  which  can  only  be  done  by  steam-heat,  a  new 
impetus  will  be  given  to  the  growth  of  the  bean,  for,  like  all 
discoveries  of  value,  the  better  an  article  is  produced,  the  more 
universally  is  it  used. 

Coffee  was  first  regularly  introduced  into  England  about  the 
middle  of  the  seventeenth  century,  as  we  learn  from  the  fol- 
lowing extract  from  Sir  Henry  Blount,  who  visited  Turkey  in 
1634 :— "  The  Turks  have  a  drink,"  he  writes,  "  called  Cauphe, 
made  of  a  berry  as  big  as  a  small  bean,  dried  in  a  furnace,  and 
beat  to  a  powder  of-  a  sooty  color,  in  taste  a  little  bitterish,  that 
they  seethe  and  drink,  hot  as  may  be  endured.  It  is  good  at  all 
hours  of  the  day,  but  especially  at  morning  and  evening,  when 
to  that  purpose  they  entertain  themselves  two  or  three  hours  in 
cauphe-houses,  which,  in  Turkey,  abound  more  than  Inns  and 
ale-houses  with  us."  Notwithstanding  the  opposition  and  pre- 
judice which  prevailed  against  the  beverage  for  nearly  a  score 
of  years  after  its  first  introduction,  the  coffee-houses  continued 
to  increase  in  London  and  other  large  cities  of  England.  All 
classes  resorted  to  them ;  literary  men  and  artists,  mercantile 
men  and  the  votaries  of  fashion,  all  had  their  respective  coffee- 
houses. Thus — 

"  Mocha's  berry,  from  Arabia  pure, 
In  small,  fine,  china  cups  came  in  at  last." 

The  English  and  French  dispute  the  honor  of  being  the  first 
introducers  of  coffee  into  "Western  Europe.  Coffee  was  not 
used  at  Rome  until  long  after  it  had  been  known  to,  and 
tasted  by,  Italian  travellers  at  Constantinople ;  the  Church, 
however,  looked  with  favor  upon  a  beverage,  one  effect  of 


24:  THE  HISTORY  OF   COFFEE. 

which  was  to  keep  both  priests  and  people  awake.  Although 
the  coffee-houses  of  England  take  precedence  of  those  of 
France,  yet  the  latter  have  more  enduringly  flourished. 
On  the  authority  of  Oldys,  the  antiquary,  "  the  first  use 
of  coffee  in  England  was  known  in  1657,  when  one  Edwards, 
a  Turkey  merchant,  brought  from  Smyrna  to  London  one 
Pasqua  Kosee,  a  Ragusan  youth,  who  prepared  this  drink 
for  him  every  morning.  But  the  novelty  thereof  drawing  too 
much  company  to  him,  he  allowed  his  said  servant,  with 
another  of  his  sons-in-law,  to  sell  it  publicly ;  and  they  set  up 
the  first  coffee-house  in  London,  in  St.  Michael's  Alley, 
Cornhill.  But  they  separating,  Pasqua  kept  in  the  house ;  and 
he  who  had  been  his  partner  obtained  leave  to  pitch  a  tent, 
and  sell  the  liquor,  in  St.  Michael's  Churchyard."  Aubrey,  in 
his  "Anecdotes,"  states  that  the  first  vender  of  coffee  in 
London  was  one  Bowman,  coachman  to  a  Turkey  merchant 
named  Hodges,  who  was  the  father-in-law  of  Edwards,  and  the 
partner  of  Pasqua,  who  got  into  difficulties,  partly  by  his  not 
being  a  freeman,  and  who  left  the  country.  Bowman  was  not 
only  patronized,  but  a  magnificent  contribution  of  one  thousand 
sixpences  was  presented  to  him,  wherewith  he  made  great 
improvements  in  his  coffee-house.  Bowman  took  an  appren- 
tice (Paynter),  who  learned  the  mystery  of  coffee-making,  and 
soon  after  set  up  for  himself.  The  coffee-houses,  after  this, 
soon  became  numerous. 

The  frequenters  of  coffee-houses,  however,  were  not  then 
regarded  as  belonging  to  the  most  reputable  classes  of  society, 
and  the  proposed  substitution  of  a  cup  of  the  Arabian  infusion 
for  Canary  wine,  provoked  the  opposition  of  the  wits  and 
satirists.  The  ladies,  also,  declared  against  its  being  thus  sold 
at  coffee-houses, — from  which  they  were  excluded, — as  being 
unsocial  and  uncivil.  On  the  other  hand,  apologists  and 
advocates  were  not  wanting  in  their  behalf:  one  of  the  most 


THE  HISTORY  OF   COFFEE.  25 

curious  of  which  was  that  of  Aubrey, — the  Boswell  of  his 
day, — who  declared  that  he  should  never  have  acquired  so 
extensive  an  acquaintance  but  for  the  "  modern  advantages  of 
coffee-houses  in  this  great  city;  before  which  men  knew  not 
how  to  be  acquainted  but  with  their  own  relations  and 
societies ! " 

An  animated  controversy  was  kept  up  about  coffee  during 
the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth  centuries.  Among  the  squibs 
and  lampoons  of  the  time  may  be  mentioned  the  following 
piquant  titles : — " The  Coffee-house  Granado"  " The  Women's 
Petition  against  Coffee"  and  "  The  Men's  Answer  to  the  same'1 
Another  was  entitled,  "  A.  cup  of  Coffee,  or  Coffee  in  its  true 
Colour : "  and  a  grave  writer  in  prose  issued  a  grotesque 
hand-bill,  headed  with  a  rude  cut  of  coffee-bibbers,  surrounded 
with  the  following  eulogistic  legend :  "  A  brief  description  of 
the  excellent  vertues  of  that  sober  and  wholesome  drinke, 
called  coffee,  and  its  incomparable  effects  in  preventing  or 
curing  most  diseases  incidental  to  human  bodies ! "  When  first 
introduced  into  London,  coffee  sold  at  from  four  to  five  guineas 
a  pound.  In  spite  of  opposition,  coffee  soon  became  a  favorite 
drink,  and  the  shops  where  it  was  sold,  places  of  general 
resort !  Another  of  the  earliest  coffee-houses  of  London  wras 
the  well-known  "Rainbow,"  near  Temple  Bar,  which  still 
flourishes,  but  altogether  in  a  new  style.  In  1675  a  proclama- 
tion was  issued  for  closing  all  coffee-houses.  The  government 
soon  found,  however,  that  in  making  such  a  proclamation  they 
had  gone  a  step  too  far;  for  the  coffee-houses  of  even  that 
day  had  become  a  "  power  in  the  land."  They  were  indeed 
the  chief  organs  through  which  the  public  opinion  of  the 
metropolis  was  expressed.  That  coffee-houses  in  Charles  the 
Second's  time  were  regarded  as  headquarters  for  the  news  of 
the  day,  \ve  gather  from  a  "broadside"  song,  which  com- 
mences thus : — 
2 


26  THE  HISTORY  OF  COFFEE. 

"  You  that  delight  in  wit  and  mirth,  and  long  to  hear  such  news 

As  come  from  all  parts  of  the  earth, — Dutch,  Danes,  and  Turks,  and  Jews  ;— 

I'll  send  you  to  a  rendezvous,  where  it  is  smoking  new  ; 

And  coming  from  the  coffee-house,  it  cannot  but  be  true  !  " 

Doran,  in  his  amusing  volume,  "  Table  Traits,"  nas  gathered 
some  curious  items  and  incidents  connected  with  the  old  London 
coffee-houses  which  are  replete  with  interest,  and  which  we 
shall  condense  for  the  reader.  The  "  Grecian "  was  one  of  the 
most  noted  of  the  old  establishments  of  this  kind  in  London ; 
it  appears  to  have  been  the  oldest  of  the  better-known  of  the 
coffee-houses,  and  to  have  lasted  the  longest.  It  was  opened  by 
one  Constantine,  a  Greek,  living  in  the  latter  part  of  the  seven- 
teenth century,  and  its  location  was  in  the  vicinity  of  St.  Christo- 
pher's Church.  Its  longevity  is  not  a  little  remarkable,  for  its 
career  came  to  a  close  only  in  the  year  1843,  when  the  u  Grecian 
Coffee-house"  became  transformed  into  the  "  Grecian  Chambers," 
or  lodgings  for  bachelors.  The  establishment  did  not  exist  in  the 
same  locality,  however,  all  the  time;  for  at  the  time  of  its 
transformation  the  "  Grecian  "  was  situated  in  Devereux  Street, 
Strand.  In  its  palmy  days  it  was  the  resort  of  the  learned 
and  aristocratic,  and  its  classic  name  seems  not  to  have  been 
dishonored  by  its  fame.  Sparkling  humor  and  genial  repartee 
would  often  flash  responsive  to  the  inspiring  but  non-inebriating 
cup,  and  thus  qualify  the  gravity  of  those  learned  pundits  who 
would  gather  there,  not  to  discuss  the  trivialities  of  the  day,  but 
those  weightier  matters  that  concern  the  rise  and  fall  of  dy- 
nasties,— such  as  the  fate  of  Rome  and  the  events  which  issued 
from  the  Trojan  war.  Yet  then,  as  now,  satirists  would  seize 
upon  the  points  of  humor ;  and  as  there  were  pedants  as  well 
as  philosophers  who  convened  at  the  "  Grecian,"  so  lampoons 
and  literary  squibs  were  not  wanting  to  enliven  the  scene. 

It  w^as  a  time  when  both  sages  and  sciolists  wrore  swords ; 
and  it  is  on  record  that  two  friendly  scholars,  sipping  their 


THE  HISTORY  OF  COFFEE.  27 

coffee  at  the  "  Grecian,"  became  enemies  in  argument,  the  subject 
of  which  was  the  accent  of  a  Greek  word.  Whatever  the  accent 
ought  to  have  been,  the  quarrel  was  acute ,  and  its  conclusion 
grave.  The  scholars  rushed  into  Devereux  Court,  drew  their 
swords,  and  as  one  was  run  through  the  body  and  killed  on  the 
spot,  it  is  to  be  supposed  that  he  was  necessarily  wrong.  A 
duel,  however,  was  certainly  a  strange  way  of  settling  a  ques- 
tion in  grammar.  The  "  coffee-houses  "  which  were  resorted  to 
for  mere  conversation  as  well  as  coffee  began  on  a  first  floor ; 
they  were  the  seed,  as  it  were,  whence  has  arisen  the  political 
and  exclusive  "  club  "  of  the  present  day.  The  advantages  of 
association  were  first  experienced  in  coffee-houses ;  but  at  the 
same  time  it  must  be  admitted  that  there  also  was  felt  the 
annoyance  caused  by  intrusive  and  unwelcome  strangers. 
"  Wills's  Coffee-house,"  also  known  as  the  "  Wits  "  from  its  com- 
pany, w^as  situated  at  the  west  corner  of  Bow  Street,  Covent 
Garden.  In  the  last  half  of  the  seventeenth  century,  its 
popularity  w^as  at  its  height.  It  was  at  Wills's  that  Dryden 
"  pedagogued  "  without  restraint,  and  accepted  without  a  blush 
any  amount  of  flattery  on  his  literary  productions.  He  was  the 
great  literary  luminary  around  which  lesser  orbs  and  satellites 
revolved.  He  had  the  good  sense,  however,  to  retire  early, 
when  the  tables  were  full,  and  he  knew  he  had  made  a  favora- 
ble impression  ;  but  Addison,  more  given  to  jolly  fellowship, 
sat  late  with  those  who  stayed  to  indulge  "  libations  deep."  Of 
the  disputes  that  there  arose,  "  Glorious  John  "  was  arbiter  :  for 
his  particular  use  a  chair  was  especially  reserved ;  therein 
enthroned  he  sat  by  the  hearth  or  the  balcony,  according  to  the 
season,  and  delivered  his  decisions.  Another  of  the  renowned 
London  coffee-houses  was  "  Button's,"  in  Great  Russell  Street ; 
this  was  Addison's  favorite  rendezvous,  although  the  fruit  of  the 
vine  was,  in  his  case,  preferred  to  the  infusion  of  the  berry. 
There,  after  writing  during  the  forenoon  at  his  house  in 


28  THE  HISTORY  OF   COFFEE. 

St.  James's  Place, — where  his  breakfast  table  was  attended  by 
such  men  as  Steele,  Davenant,  Carey,  Philips,  Pope,  and  other 
bards  and  writers  of  note, — he  was  to  be  found  of  an  evening  until 
supper.  Pope  was  of  the  company  for  about  a  year,  but  left  it 
partly  because  late  hours  injured  his  health,  and  partly  also 
because  his  irritable  temper  had  rendered  him  unpopular.  He 
had  so  provoked  Ambrose  Philips,  indeed,  that  the  latter  sus- 
pended a  birchen-rod  over  Pope's  usual  seat,  in  intimation  of 
what  the  ordinary  occupant  would  get  if  he  ventured  into  it. 
The  Buttonians  were  famous  for  the  fierceness  of  their  criti- 
cism. Of  coffee-houses  that  went  by  the  name  of  "  Tom's " 
there  were  three :  at  that  in  Birchen-lane  Garrick  frequently 
might  have  been  seen  ;  and  poor  Chatterton,  before  fell  despair 
slew  him.  At  the  other  coffee-house  known  as  "  Tom's,"  in 
Devereux  Court,  Akenside,  with  many  of  the  scholars,  critics, 
and  scientists  of  the  day  used  to  congregate ;  but  the  "  Tom's  " 
was  opposite  Button's,  in  Great  Russell  Street.  It  was  a  place 
generally  crowded  with  incident,  from  the  time  of  Queen  Anne 
to  that  of  George  III.  Seven  hundred  of  the  nobility,  literary 
notabilities,  and  wits  of  celebrity  were  guinea  subscribers  to 
this  establishment ;  most  of  the  company,  however,  consoled 
themselves  with  something  more  potent  than  coffee.  The  poli- 
ticians as  well  as  the  poets  had  their  coffee-houses ;  the  "  Cocoa- 
Tree  "  in  St.  Jamqs's  Street  was  the  Tory  house  in  the  reign 
of  Queen  Anne ;  the  "  St.  James's  "  was  the  Whig  house.  Here 
occasionally  might  have  been  seen  members  of  Parliament,  also 
a  galaxy  of  literary  stars.  This  had  a  more  solid  reputation 
than  any  other  of  the  coffee-houses  except  "  White's."  "  Gar- 
raways,"  or  Garway,  as  the  original  proprietor  was  called,  was 
one  of  the  earliest  coffee-sellers  in  London,  and  his  house  was 
frequented  by  the  nobility  and  gentry,  as  well  as  others  who 
wished  to  sip  the  aromatic  beverage.  All  these  places,  and 
many  others  which  might  be  referred  to,  were  in  full  activity  of 


THE  HISTORY  OF  COFFEE.  29 

business  and  coffee-drinking  in  the  reign  of  Queen  Anne. 
Another  notable  coffee-house  was  known  as  "  Squire's,"  at 
which  the  lawyers  and  politicians  were  accustomed  to  meet 
in  considerable  numbers;  and  there,  it  will  be  remembered, 
"  Sir  Hoger  de  Coverley  "  smoked  a  pipe  over  a  dish  of  coffee 
with  the  "  Spectator."  But  we  have  been  loitering,  perhaps 
too  long,  about  the  old  London  coffee-houses,  and  in  tracing  the 
history  of  Cafes  in  Europe  and  the  East ;  still  we  cannot  dismiss 
the  subject  without  referring  to  the  history  of  coffee-houses  in 
our  own  country. 

The  consumption  of  the  berry  is  constantly  and  rapidly 
increasing  in  the  United  States,  the  increased  ratio  being 
greater  than  the  most  sanguine  advocate  of  the  beverage  could 
ever  have  predicted,  and  pure  coffee  must  soon  be  so  exten- 
sively and  universally  used  that  all  pertaining  to  its  history 
will  be  of  interest  to  the  world  at  large. 

In  no  place  in  the  world,  probably,  are  the  influences  and 
healthful  effects  of  pure  coffee  more  happily  displayed  than  in 
what  is  known  to  every  resident  and  visitor  of  the  Crescent  City 
as  the  old  French  market  of  ISTew  Orleans.  Here,  from  the 
"  earliest  time,"  have  been  coffee-venders  conveniently  distri- 
buted throughout  the  great  maze  of  stalls  and  marts,  and  from 
the  small  hours  in  the  morning  until  nearly  noon  the  distribu- 
ters of  this  most  invigorating  of  beverages  are  busy  as  bees. 

Aside  from  their  special  occupation,  these  dealers  in  coffee 
are  a  peculiar  people.  It  seems  to  be  an  appropriate  vocation 
in  this  genial  climate,  which  at  once  strikes  the  observant  tra- 
veller when  he  first  sees  a  French  or  Spanish  mulatto,  with 
her  head  curiously  covered  by  a  gayly  striped  bandanna, 
serving  hot  coffee.  Yet  it  is  a  fact  that  it  is  only  people  who 
answer  to  this  description  who  are  the  most  thorough  experts  in 
extracting  the  delicious  taste  from  the  berry,  in  keeping  the 
delightful  aroma  from  passing  away  in  the  rising  steam,  in  pro- 


30  THE  HISTORY  OF   COFFEE. 

viding  the  best  kinds  of  sugar  and  the  most  honest  and  well- 
cleaned  cups  and  saucers.  At  the  shrine  of  one  of  these  ven- 
ders in  the  early  hours  of  the  morning,  when  the  fogs  of  the 
Mississippi  are  rolling  over  the  Crescent  City,  breaking  like 
clouds  against  the  intervening  houses,  and  filling  the  air  with 
sickly  miasma  which  nauseates  the  unfortunate  whose  business 
calls  him  out  before  the  fogs  are  dissipated,  then  it  is  that  coffee 
is  most  prized.  Look  at  the  recipient,  who  with  blanched  face, 
dull  eyes,  and  depressed  mien,  reaches  out  his  hand  and  seizes 
upon  the  nectar.  The  moment  the  fragrance  reaches  his  nos- 
trils a  transformation  for  the  better  commences,  the  eyes  grow 
bright,  a  healthful  color  and  natural  fulness  returns  to  the 
cheeks,  smiles  wreath  the  mouth,  the  mind  becomes  active,  the 
fogs,  the  dark  air,  effluvia  of  all  sorts  are  exorcised  like  ghosts 
fleeing  before  the  penetrating  rays  of  the  unobstructed  sun. 

The  European,  the  Creole,  the  New  Englander,  the  men  of 
the  West  and  the  far-off  Orient,  all  visit  the  coffee-stands. 
While  partaking  there  is  for  the  instant  a  touch  of  nature  which 
makes  mankind  akin,  for  it  is  observable  that  the  recipients  of 
the  morning  cup  of  pure  Java  are  sociable.  Artificial  distinc- 
tions are  discarded  in  the  very  act  of  drinking  in  the  crowded 
market,  or  even  standing  in  the  open  street.  But  it  is  the  very 
thing,  this  mixture  of  the  rude  and  the  refined,  that  adds  zest  to 
the  "  open-air  cup  of  coffee."  The  merry  twinkle  of  the  eye  of 
the  attendant  quadroon,  her  quiet  manners,  her  attentive  observ- 
ance of  the  wants  and  tastes  of  the  various  customers,  the  very 
polish  of  the  tall  copper  kettle,  the  jet  of  steam,  the  whiteness 
of  the  crockery,  constitute  associations  that,  once  realized,  one 
never  forgets,  and  justly  places  coffee  among  the  most  grateful, 
innocent,  and  healthful  things  that  we  Americans  include  among 
the  necessaries  of  life. 

The  coffee-houses  of  New  York  are  intimately  associated 
with  the  history  of  the  city.  Within  their  walls  have  been  the 


THE  HISTORY  OF   COFFEE.  31 

scenes  and  players  whose  actions  made  the  pulses  of  the  nation 
throb  in  high  excitement,  or  calmed  them  to  deep  repose.  The 
early  records  show  that  in  1643  Martin  Krigier  became  the 
owner  of  a  plot  of  land  on  the  west  side  of  what  is  now  called 
Broadway,  nearly  opposite  the  north  end  of  the  Bowling  Green, 
and  built  on  it  Krigier's  Tavern.  It  soon  became  a  resort  of  the 
fashionable  men  of  the  day,  and  was  at  times  the  headquarters 
of  the  Dutch  Governor,  William  Kieft.  It  was  removed  in 
after-years,  and  on  its  site  was  built  the  "  King's  Arms  Tavern." 
During  the  excitement  previous  to  the  Re  volution,  it  was 
known  as  Burn's  Coffee-House,  and  was  used  for 'the  meetings 
of  merchants  and  the  associations  of  "  Liberty  Boys."  On  the 
31st  of  October,  1765,  the  merchants  engaged  in  the  importa- 
tion of  English  goods  met  at  Burn's  Coffee-House,  and  adopted 
resolutions  to  import  no  more  goods  from  England  until  the 
Stamp  Act  was  repealed.  Two  hundred  merchants  signed  the 
resolutions.  During  the  same  evening  a  non-importation  soci- 
ety was  formed  in  the  same  place,  and  a  committee  on  cor- 
respondence appointed,  comprising  many  of  the  w^ell-known 
merchants  of  New  York.  During  the  Revolution  the  house 
became  the  headquarters  of  General  Gage,  of  the  British  army. 
Years  rolled  on,  and  when  Time  touched  the  spot  again  it  was 
changed  into  the  Atlantic  Gardens.  In  the  summer  of  1860 
the  ground  was  purchased  by  the  Hudson  River  Railroad  Com- 
pany, and  the  old  house  was  removed  to  make  room  for  a 
freight  depot. 

At  the  foot  of  Wall  street,  still  known  among  the  old  mer- 
chants as  Coffee-House  Slip,  was  the  Merchants'  Coffee-House. 
It  stood  on  the  southeast  corner  of  Wall  and  Water  streets,  and 
before  the  erection  of  the  Tontine  Coffee-House,  in  1792,  was, 
in  fact,  the  Merchants'  Exchange,  and  political  headquarters 
of  colonial  times.  .  In  1762  a  petition  was  presented  to  the 
city  authorities  for  the  removal  of  the  meal-market  at  the  foot 


32  THE  HISTORY   OF   COFFEE. 

of  "Wall  street,  because  "  it  was  disagreeable  to  those  that  pass 
to  and  from  the  Coffee-House,  a  place  of  great  resort."  The 
meal-market  was  built  in  1709,  and  occupied  the  site  of  the 
ancient  half-moon  fortification  and  block-house  of  the  Dutch 
era.  The  Merchants'  Coffee-House  was  five  stories  high,  the 
entrance  being  even  with  the  sidewalk ;  a  light  balcony  crossed 
the  front  and  side  of  the  house  at  the  second  story.  That  it 
was  a  business  centre  in  the  early  days  of  the  city  may  be 
gathered  from  the  following  copy  of  an  advertisement  in  the 
newspapers  of  April  9, 1750  : — "  For  London.  The  Ship  Brave 
Hawke,  John  Bill,  Commander ;  "Will  sail  in  about  Ten  Days : 
For  Freight  or  Passage  agree  with  John  Troup,  or  said  Master. 
Just  imported  a  parcel  of  Likely  Negroes  to  be  sold  at  publick 
Ven due,  To-morrow  at  Ten  o' Clock,  at  the  Merchants'  Coffee 
House."  A  ISTew  York  price-current  of  August  6th,  1750, 
quotes  coffee  at  20  pence  per  pound.  The  Merchants'  Coffee- 
House  was  destroyed  by  fire  on  December  18th,  1804.  The 
site  was  afterwards  occupied  by  the  offices  of  the  New  York 
Journal  of  Commerce,  one  of  the  most  prominent  commercial 
newspapers  in  the  country.  While  the  bounds  of  the  city 
were  somewhat  limited, — Broadway  extending  only  as  far  as 
Worth  street,  and  the  line  of  Canal  street  and  Broadway  was 
so  distant  from  the  city  that  one  of  the  Lutheran  churches,  to 
whom  was  offered  six  acres  of  land  at  that  point,  declined  the 
gift  because  the  land  wras  not  worth  fencing  in,- -coffee-houses 
were  numerous  in  New  York.  Richard  Clarke  Cook,  who  had 
bought  the  interest  of  Andrew  Eamsey  in  the  "King's  Arms" 
on  Dock  street,  near  the  Long  Bridge,  reopened  it  on  May  7th, 
1750,  as  "The  Gentlemen's  and  Exchange  Coffee-House  and 
Tavern."  Perhaps  the  most  famous  was  the  City  Tavern.  It 
was  built  in  the  early  part  of  the  last  century,  by  the  Delancey 
family,  and  still  stands  on  the  southeast  corner  of  Broad  and 
Dock,  now  Broad  and  Pearl  streets.  In  1757  it  was  occupied  by 


THE  HISTORY  OF   COFFEE.  33 

Delaneey,  Robinson  &  Co.,  for  the  sale  of  "East  India  goods, 
shoes,  stockings,  and  shirts,  white  and  checked,  fit  for  the  army, 
with  a  variety  of  other  goods."  On  the  loth  of  January,  1762, 
the  property  was  conveyed  to  Samuel  Francis,  or,  as  he  after- 
wards signed  his  name,  Samuel  Fraunces.  He  was  the  Del- 
monico  of  that  age,  having  been  the  proprietor  of  the  "  Mason's 
Arms,"  near  the  Bowling  Green,  the  Yauxhall  Gardens  in 
Greenwich  street,  and  the  great  Philadelphia  stage-office  in 
Cortlandt  street.  Fraunces  opened  the  house  on  Broad  street 
as  a  tavern,  under  the  sign  of  "  Queen  Charlotte."  In  1765 
Fraunces  retired,  and  was  followed  by  John  Jones.  In  1766 
Jones  withdrew  in  favor  of  Bolton  &  Sigell,  who  were  thus 
advertised  in  Holfs  New  York  Journal ; — "  Bolton  &  Sigell 
Take  this  method  to  acquaint  the  Publick  that  they  propose  to 
open,  on  Monday  next,  a  Coffee-House  at  the  House  of  Mr. 
Samuel  Francis,  near  the  Exchange,  lately  kept  by  Mr.  John 
Jones,  and  known  by  the  name  of  the  i  Queen's  Head  Tavern,' 
where  Gentlemen  may  depend  upon  receiving  the  best  of 
Usage.  As  Strangers,  they  are  sensible  they  can  have  no 
Pretensions  to  the  Favour  of  the  Public  but  what  results 
from  their  readiness  upon  all  occasions  to  oblige."  The 
house  enjoyed  a  fair  share  of  business.  The  societies  met 
there  as  in  the  time  of  Fraunces ;  the  Chamber  of  Commerce 
held  its  monthly  meetings  there  until  it  secured  a  room  of  its 
own ;  yet  the  business  was  not  profitable,  and  in  1770  Mr. 
Sigell  retired  from  the  firm.  In  the  same  year  Mr.  Bolton 
gave  up  the  business,  and  Fraunces  again  took  possession.  It 
was  during  this  last  term  of  Fraunces  that  the  "  City,"  or,  as  it 
was  better  known,  "  Fraunces's  Tavern,"  acquired  its  celebrity. 
Large  dinner-parties  were  held  there,  and  among  the  societies 
that  met  in  the  upper  rooms  during  the  winter  was  the  "Social 
Club."  During  the  summer  this  Club  encamped  at  Kip's  Bay 
Meetings  were  held  on  Saturday  evenings,  and  on  the  rolls  were 
2* 


34  THE  HISTORY  OF   COFFEE. 

the  well-known  names  of  John  Jay,  member  of  Congress,  minis- 
ter to  Spain,  minister  to  England,  and  Governor  of  New  York ; 
Gouverneur  Morris,  Robert  R.  Livingston,  Morgan  Lewis,  Eg- 
bert Benson,  Gulian  Verplanck,  President  of  the  Bank  of  New 
York ;  John  Watts,  Leonard  and  Anthony  Lispenard,  Richard 
Harrison,  Peter  Yan  Schaack,  Daniel  Ludlow,  afterwards 
President  of  the  Manhattan  Bank;  William  Imlay,  and  Dr. 
Samuel  Bard,  Washington's  favorite  physician.  The  Clnb 
was  broken  up  in  1775.  In  the  parlor  on  the  second  floor  of 
Fraunces's  Tavern,  on  the  4th  day  of  December,  1783,  occurred 
the  most  sadly  impressive  scene  in  Washington's  history.  At 
noon  the  officers  of  the  army  were  there  assembled,  at  the  re- 
quest of  the  great  chieftain,  to  finally  part.  The  scene  has 
been  so  often  described  that  it  needs  no  repetition  here.  In 
1789,  Fraunces,  or,  as  he  was  sometimes  called,  "  Black  Sam," 
became  the  chief  steward  in  Washington's  household,  at  the 
residence  of  the  first  President,  No.  3  Cherry  street,  near  Frank- 
lin square,  where  we  are  told  Mrs.  Washington  furnished  her 
guests  on  New  Year's  day,  1790,  with  coffee,  tea,  plum  and 
plain  cake. 

The  celebrated  Tontine  Coffee-House,  on  the  north-west  cor- 
ner of  Wall  and  Water  streets,  was  commenced  in  1792,  and  was 
the  scene  of  many  stirring  events  in  the  annals  of  history  and 
trade.  The  Merchants'  Coffee-House,  on  the  opposite  corner, 
was  then  called  the  Old  Coffee-House,  and  its  business  was 
gradually  transferred  to  the  Tontine,  to  which  place  the  Ex- 
change was  moved  from  the  dingy  building  in  the  middle  of 
Broad  street,  between  Pearl  and  the  river,  where  it  had  been 
since  the  revolution.  The  following  extracts  from  an  article  on 
the  Tontine  Coffee-House  will  be  read  with  interest : — 

"  In  1795  the  old  Coffee-House  was  in  full  operation,  but  who 
can  tell  us  of  the  scenes  therein?  Who  can  call  back  the  voices 


THE  HISTORY  OF   COFFEE.  35 

of  the  old  merchants  of  that  day,  and  repeat  the  stories  they 
laughed  over  in  the  Coffee-House  on  i  opening  night  ? ' 

"  At  length  the  Merchants'  Exchange  moved  further  up  Wall 
street,  and  sales  of  merchandise  were  not  so  frequent  within  the 
old  house,  but  the  long  stoop  on  the  Wall  street  front  was  still 
used,  an  1  the  advertisements  of  the  day  read,  '  At  X  o'clock,  in 
front  of  T.  C.,  will  be  sold '  -  — ." 

It  was  designed  to  provide  a  central  location  for  the  mercan- 
tile community.  The  merchants  had  long  felt  the  need  of  some 
place  where  they  could  assemble  and  discuss  the  probable  re- 
sults of  trade  and  the  various  questions  of  the  time,  and  during 
their  leisure  indulge  in  a  cup  of  prime  old  coffee  without  walk- 
ing to  their  distant  homes  in  State  street,  Bowling  Green,  and 
the  lower  part  of  Greenwich  street.  The  property  was  pur- 
chased by  five  merchants,  and  held  by  them  under  the  provi- 
sions of  the  Tontine  Association  as  the  first  board  of  directors. 

"In  1826  and  1827  the  Tontine  Coffee-House  was  in  the 
hands  of  John  Morse,  who  had  formerly  kept  the  old  Stage- 
House  at  the  corner  of  Church  and  Crown  streets,  !N"ew  Haven. 
He  turned  the  entire  house  into  a  tavern,  and  it  so  remained  for 
several  years.  The  first  floor  was  in  one  room,  running  the  full 
length  of  the  house,  and  fronting  Wall  street.  At  the  back  of 
the  room,  extending  nearly  its  whole  length,  was  the  old-fash- 
ioned bar.  Jutting  out  from  the  counter  were  curious  arms  of 
brass,  supporting  the  thick,  round,  and  mast-like  timber  on  which 
the  heavy  dealers  leaned  while  ordering  refreshments.  About 
the  room  were  numerous  small  tables,  and  after  supper,  in  fair 
weather,  around  the  tables  could  be  seen  many  of  the  wealthy 
city  men,  diminishing  the  contents  of  their  pewter  mugs,  or 
planning,  amid  the  curling  smoke  in  the  room,  their  operations 
for  the  next  day.  Morse  was  not  successful  in  the  Tontine,  and 
was  finally  sold  out  for  the  benefit  of  *  whom  it  might  concern.' 

"  In  1832  it  was  kept  as  a  hotel  by  Lovejoy  &  Belcher,  and 


36  THE   HISTORY  OF   COFFEE. 

was  the  scene  of  several  brilliant  Masonic  dinners.  The  lodges, 
in  annual  parade,  would  march  from  the  City  Hotel,  on  Broad- 
way, down  to  Broad  street ;  through  Broad  to  Pearl,  and  through 
Pearl  street  to  Wall  and  the  Coffee-House — which  they  thought 
a  long  tramp.  After  the  banquet  the  march  would  be  resumed 
along  Pearl  to  Beekman  street,  up  Beekman  to  Chatham  street, 
down  Chatham  to  Broadway  and  the  City  Hotel. 

Caldwell  &  Kenyon  kept  a  restaurant  in  the  basement; 
they  afterwards  sold  out  to  Charles  Ridabock,  familiarly  known 
as  the  i  Alderman.'  Charles  was  a  heavy,  good-natured  Ger- 
man, who  kept  the  dirtiest  shop  and  the  best  oysters  in  the  city. 
He  had  been  for  many  years  an  employe  of  George  Washing- 
ton Browne. 

In  1823,  when  the  entire  block  on  ^he  west  side  of  Water 
street,  between  Pine  and  Wall  streets,  was  mainly  occupied  by 
the  stores  and  offices  of  auctioneers,  a  hotel  was  opened  on  the 
opposite  side,  at  ISTos.  123  and  125  Water  street,  by  George 
Washington  Browne,  and  called  the  '  Auction  Hotel.'  The  host 
had  many  friends  among  the  merchants  and  was  well  patronized. 
Some  years  later,  in  1832,  the  physicians  in  the  city  urged  all 
to  abstain  from  drinking  beer  and  wine,  and  to  drink  pure 
coffee,  in  order  to  avoid  the  cholera,  then  epidemic.  Browne 
immediately  opened  a  large  and  convenient  coffee-room  on  the 
first  floor  of  the  hotel,  and  the  wonders  of  coffee  as  a  sanitary 
beverage  were  highly  commended.  The  hotel  became  familiarly 
known  as  Browne's  Coffee-House  and  was  a  favorite  dining- 
place.  A  number  of  merchants  that  dined  there  became  known 
as  'the  club;'  such  men  as  Thomas  H.  Faile,  John  J.  Boyd, 
Samuel  Paxon,  Edward  Penfold,  George  W.  Blunt,  Gilbert 
Davis,  and  other  well-known  New  Yorkers  could  daily  be  met 
there.  The  club  has  ceased  to  meet,  but  the  hotel  is  open,  and 
the  coffee-room  and  restaurant  are  still  patronized. 

On  the  south-east  of  what  is  now  Pine  and  William  streets, 


THE  HISTORY  OF   COFFEE.  37 

there  stood  from  the  year  1812  to  1830  the  Bank  Coffee-House, 
kept  by  William  Niblo.  Adjoining  it  on  the  rear  was  a  garden, 
and  the  building  formerly  occupied  by  the  Bank  of  New  York, 
the  first  banking  institution  established  in  this  city.  Pine 
street  was  then  lined  with  the  residences  of  prominent  lawyers 
and  merchants.  The  houses  were  nearly  all  built  of  brick,  with 
sunken  areas  in  front.  Mr.  Niblo  was  then  a  young,  active  man, 
taking  great  pride  in  the  reputation  of  his  cafe,  and  soon  made 
it  famous  for  its  sappers  given  by  Benedicts  taking  leave  of 
their  bachelor  friends.  In  1830  the  Bank  Coffee-House  passed 
into  other  hands  and  was  torn  down,  Niblo  going  to  Broadway 
and  Prince  street,  where  he  opened  the  gardens  which  bore 
his  name. 

The  cheerful  name  of  coffee-house  has  somewhat  lost  its  sig- 
nificance in  New  York  with  the  establishment  of  the  more  pre- 
tentious hotels,  and  in  them  the  coffee-rooms  are  shorn  of  many 
pleasant  associations.  Within  a  few  years  a  desire  has  been 
shown  to  establish  richly  appointed  and  well-ordered  cafes, 
managed  by  chefs  from  sunny  France.  Those  who  early  em- 
barked in  the  business  have  enlarged  their  establishments,  and 
new  ones  are  constantly  springing  up  in  nearly  every  sec- 
tion of  the  metropolis,  especially  on  the  fashionable  thorough- 
fares, and  young  New  Yorkers  have  not  been  long  in  adopting 
the  Parisian  ideas  and  conveniences  of  the  cafe,  as  a  pleasant 
place  to  stroll  in  after  the  opera  or  theatre. 

To  judge  of  the  estimate  in  which  coffee  is  held  in  the  United 
States,  it  is  only  necessary  to  refer  to  the  table  showing  the 
annual  average  consumption  to  see  that  we  are  by  far  the 
largest  coffee-consumers  in  the  world ;  six-fold  more  than  some 
of  the  States  of  Europe.  Germany  and  France  stand  next  to 
ourselves  in  the  rank  of  great  coffee-drinkers. 


te 


IT  is  a  curious  fact,  that  three 
plants  connect  together,  three  dif- 
ferent quarters  of  the  globe,  which 
might  otherwise  have  known  com- 
paratively little  of  each  other: 
Arabia  is  linked  to  America  and 
Europe  by  her  coffee;  China,  by 
her  tea ;  and  tobacco  has  been  for 
ages  one  of  the  connecting  com- 
mercial bonds  between  the  two 
hemispheres. 

Before  referring  to  the  various 
methods  of  cultivation,  it  may  not  be  inappropriate,  briefly 
to  describe  the  plant  itself.  Coffee,  a  cinchonaceous  genus, 


CULTIVATION  OF  COFFEE  IN  VARIOUS  COUNTRIES.        39 

consisting  of  many  species  of  tropical  berry-bearing  shrubs, 
one  of  which,  Coffcea  Arabica,  —  the  only  one  which  is 
cultivated,  —  is  a  native  of  Upper  Ethiopia  and  Arabia 
Felix.  This  is  the  parent  of  the  plant  from  whose  crushed 
berries  we  derive  that  delightful  aromatic  drink  called  cof- 
fee. This  albuminous  substance — the  coffee  of  commerce 
—  is  to  that  plant  what  the  flour  is  to  corn,  the  white 
meat  to  a  cocoa-nut,  and  the  aromatic  ruminated  substance 
to  the  nutmeg.  It  is  a  secretion  formed  in  the  interior 
of  the  seed,  and  enveloping  the  embryo  plant,  for  whose 
support  it  is  destined  when  it  first  begins  to  germinate ;  it 
constitutes  the  principal  part  of  the  seed,  the  embryo  being 
itself  a  minute  body  lying  in  a  cavity  at  one  end  of  the  al- 
bumen. 

Linnseus  places  the  plant  among  the  Pentandria  Monogy- 
nia ;  its  flower  consists  of  one  funnel-shaped  petal,  with  a 
slender  tube,  nearly  cylindrical,  much  longer  than  the  flower- 
cup.  It  is  described  botanically  as  an  ever-green  shrub  in  its 
native  state,  having  oval,  shining,  sharp-pointed  leaves,  white, 
fragrant,  five-cleft  clustered  corollas,  with  projecting  anthers, 
and  oblong  pulpy  berries,  which  are  at  first  of  a  bright  red 
color,  but  afterwards  become  purple.  The  dark-green,  leaves, 
shining  brilliantly  in  the  sun,  afford  a  beautiful  contrast  to  the 
pure  white,  jessamine-like  blossoms  that  cluster  and  nestle 
among  the  foliage  ;  which  ever  and  anon  turns  fitfully  up  with 
the  breeze  its  white  under-lining,  and  glitters  like  the  foam- 
crest  on  the  ocean  wave.  Its  leaves  resemble  those  of  the 
common  laurel,  although  not  so  dry  and  thick.  From  the 
angle  of  the  leaf-stalks  small  groups  of  the  white  flowers  issue, 
which,  as  already  stated,  resemble  those  of  the  jessamine.  These 
flowers  fade  very  soon,  and  are  replaced  by  a  kind  of  fruit  not 
unlike  a  cherry,  which  contains  a  yellow  fluid  enveloping  two 
small  seeds  or  berries,  convex  upon  one  side,  flat  and  furrowed 


40        CULTIVATION  OF   COFFEE  IN  VARIOUS   COUNTRIES. 

upon  the  other.  These  seeds  are  of  a  horny  or  cartilaginous 
nature ;  they  are  glued  together,  each  being  surrounded  with  a 
peculiar  coriaceous  membrane.  The  period  of  flowering  does 
not  last  more  than  two  days.  In  a  single  night  the  blossoms 
expand  so  profusely  that  the  trees  appear  as  if  covered  with 
snow.  The  seeds  are  known  to  be  ripe  when  the  berries  have 
a  dark  red  color. 

Travellers  and  planters  tell  us  that  nothing  can  be  conceived 
more  delightful  than  the  appearance  and  perfume  of  a  coffee 
plantation  in  full  bloom.  The  air  is  filled  with  fragrance,  and 
the  trees  appear  as  if  a  shower  of  snow  had  just  fallen  on  their 
dark-green  glossy  leaves,  which  are  almost  entirely  hidden  by 
the  profusion  of  delicate  white  blossoms.  This  rare  beauty  is, 
however,  but  short-lived, — for  the  splendid  array  of  the  morn- 
ing may,  perchance,  fade  away  with  the  heats  of  noon,  or 
the  mellowing  tints  of  even. 

Prof.  Baird,  speaking  of  a  plantation  in  the  "\Vest  Indies,  says : 
"Anything  in  the  way  of  cultivation  more  beautiful  or  more  fra- 
grant than  a  coffee  plantation  I  had  not  conceived :  and  oft  did 
I  say  to  myself  that  if  ever  I  became,  from  health  or  otherwise, 
a  cultivator  of  the  soil  within  the  tropics,  I  would  cultivate  the 
coffee-plant,  even  though  I  did  so  irrespective  altogether  of  the 
profits  that  might  be  derived  from  so  doing.  Much  has  been 
written,  and  not  without  justice,  of  the  rich  fragrance  of  an 
orange-grove  :  and  at  home  we  ofttimes  hear  of  the  sweet  odors 

O       o  7 

of  a  bean-field.  I  too  have  often  enjoyed,  in  the  Carse  of 
Stirling  and  elsewhere  in  Scotland,  the  balmy  breezes  as  they 
swept  over  the  latter,  particularly  when  the  sun  had  burst  out 
with  unusual  strength  after  a  shower  of  rain.  I  have  likewise 
in  Martinique,  Santa  Cruz,  Jamaica,  and  Cuba  inhaled  the  gales 
wafted  from  the  orangeries ;  but  not  for  a  moment  would  I 
compare  either  with  the  exquisite  aromatic  odors  from  a  coffee 
plantation  in  full  blow,  when  the  hill-side,  quite  covered  over 


CULTIVATION  OF   COFFEE  IN  VARIOUS   COUNTRIES.        41 

with  the  regular  rows  of  the  tree-like  shrub,  with  their  millions 
of  jessamine-like  flowers,  showers  down  upon  you  as  you  ride 
up  between  the  plants  a  perfume  of  the  most  delicately  deli- 
cious description.  'Tis  worth  going  to  the  West  Indies  to  see 
the  sight  and  inhale  the  perfume." 

Turnbull,  another  authority  on  the  subject,  tells  us  that  "  the 
fragrance  of  the  gardens  of  the  Tuileries  is  as  inferior  to  that 
of  the  Moorish  gardens  of  the  Alcazar,  at  Seville,  as  these  last 
— with  all  the  care  bestowed  upon  them — are  excelled  by  some 
neglected  orange-grove  in  Cuba  or  St.  Domingo.  Nor  is  the  rich 
fragrance  of  the  orange-grove  to  be  compared  for  a  moment 
with  the  aromatic  odors  of  a  coffee  plantation, — when  its 
hundred  thousand  trees  have  just  thrown  out  their  unrivalled  dis- 
play of  jessamine-like  flowers, — reminding  you  of  what  you 
may  have  read  in  Eastern  fable  of  the  perfumes  of  i  Araby  the 
blest ! ' "  It  is  also  amid  the  prodigal  luxuriance  and  splen- 
dors of  tropical  vegetation  that  the  coffee-plant  most  loves  to 
linger,  loading  the  atmosphere  with  its  perfumed  sweets,  as 
well  as  regaling  the  eye  with  its  rare  beauty.  No  wonder  that 
such  surpassing  scenes  of  beauty  should  inspire  the  poet  to  such 
utterance  as  the  following : — 

' '  Earth  from  her  lap  perennial  verdure  pours, 
Ambrosial  fruits  and  amaranthine  flowers  : 
Over  wild  mountains  and  luxuriant  plains, 
Nature  in  all  her  pomp  of  beauty  reigns  ! 
Stern  Winter  smiles  on  this  auspicious  clime  ; 
The  fields  are  florid  in  eternal  prime  ; 
From  the  bleak  pole  no  winds  inclement  blow, 
Mould  the  round  hail,  or  flake  the  fleecy  snow  ; 
But  from  the  breezy  deep  the  groves  inhale 
The  fragrant  murmurs  of  the  eastern  gale  !  " 

The  clustered  trees  of  the  golden  Mocha  in  their  native  soil 
present  a  strange  contrast,  however,  with  the  aspect  of  the  land- 
scape farther  northward.  "There,"  states  a  recent  authority, 


42        CULTIVATION  OF  COFFEE  IN  VARIOUS  COUNTRIES. 

"  a  low,  sandy  shore  affords  a  free  view  over  vast  treeless  plains 
which  stretch  in  sad  monotony  as  far  as  the  eye  can  reach, 
while  the  cloudless  sky  sends  down  an  almost  insupportable 
heat ;  only  here  and  there  a  limited  pasture,  with  lean  grass  and 
a  few  graceful  palm-trees,  breaks  the  mournful  uniformity  ;  in 
the  grateful  shade  a  few  Bedouins  rest  under  their  black  tents, 
while  their  brethren  hasten  on  the  uncouth  dromedary  through 
the  yellow  desert.  Yery  different  is  the  scene  on  the  southern 
slope  of  the  great  peninsula ;  for  here  an  abundant,  fragrant 
vegetation  unfolds  its  riches  and  enchants  the  senses ;  incense 
grows  like  the  j  uniper  of  our  woods ;  whole  forests  of  palm-trees 
overshadow  the  lower  parts  of  the  mountains,  and  vast  stretches 
of  durra  wave  like  golden  grain  in  the  gentle  breeze.  This  is 
the  home  of  the  coffee-tree." 

Amid  such  profusion  of  natural  beauty  rises  the  graceful 
plant  that  bears  the  berry  we  so  much  prize.  Not  only  does 
the  plant  load  the  air  with  delicious  perfume,  but  beautiful 
butterflies  are  ever  fluttering  among  its  honeyed  blossoms,  suck- 
ing sweets  ;  while  locusts  are  chirping  on  every  branch,  and  a 
cloudless  blue  sky  looks  down  upon  the  exuberant  splendor,  till 
the  blossoms  fade,  and  become  transmuted  in  process  of  time 
into  a  red  berry,  the  kernel  of  which  is  the  coffee-bean.  While 
these  berries  are  maturing  and  becoming  dark  purple — such 
are  the  effects  of  a  tropical  climate — the  tree  produces  a  second 
and  a  third  crop  of  snowy  blossoms,  so  that  the  beautiful  green 
pyramidal  branches  are  garnished  with  buds,  and  flowers,  and 
fruits,  at  every  stage  of  development. 

Coffee  is  still  cultivated  in  "Araby  the  blest,"  the  coffee- 
gardens  there  being  on  terraces  which  reach  to  an  elevation 
of  about  3,000  feet.  The  soil  is  kept  moist  by  means  of 
small  artificial  canals,  which  are  made  to  irrigate  the  whole 

'  O 

by  the  water  falling  from  the  upper  to  the  lower  terraces. 
The  trees  here  are  planted  so  closely  together  that  the  thick 


CULTIVATION  OF  COFFEE  IN  VARIOUS  COUNTRIES.        43 
foliage   shelters   their  roots  from  the    tropical  heat    of    the 


to 

sun. 


Niebuhr  states  that  the  plant  was  brought  from  Abyssinia 
by  the  Arabs  to  Yemen.  For  ages  it  is  believed  to  have 
been  cultivated  in  the  hilly  range  of  Jabal.  Here  the 
plants  are  grown  in  a  soil  continually  irrigated,  and  where 
trees  of  various  kinds  are  interspersed  among  the  plantations, 
whose  shade  has  a  beneficial  effect  upon  the  coffee  bushes. 
The  fruit  begins  to  ripen  in  February ;  and  when  the  seeds 
are  prepared  they  are  conveyed  to  the  city  of  Beit  el  Fakih, 
whence  part  goes  to  Mocha,  another  portion  to  Hodeida 
and  Loheia,  whence  it  finds  its  way  to  Djedda  and  Suez, 
for  the  Turkish  and  European  markets. 

Coffee,  it  has  been  proved,  can  be  cultivated  with  great  ease 
and  to  any  extent  in  the  republic  of  Liberia,  being  indigenous 
to  the  soil  and  found  there  in  abundance.  It  bears  more  fruit 
there  and  lasts  longer  than  elsewhere.  A  single  tree  at  Mora- 
via, it  is  said,  has  yielded  the  enormous  quantity  of  16  pounds 
at  one  gathering.  It  was  estimated  some  years  since  that  there 
were  about  30,000  coffee-trees  in  one  of  the  counties,  that  of 
Grand  Bassa,  and  the  quality  of  the  produce  was  stated  to  be 
equal  to  the  best  Java.  About  the  villages  and  settlements  of 
the  Sherbro  River  and  Sierra  Leone,  wild  coffee-trees  are  very 
abundant. 

If,  as  it  has  been  computed,  there  are  now  consumed 
annually  a  thousand  million  pounds  of  the  precious  bean, 
Coffee  can  no  longer  be  said  to  hold  an  insignificant  place 
among  the  staples  of  trade.  On  the  contrary,  its  impor- 
tance as  such  can  hardly  be  over-estimated,  when  it  is  remem- 
bered to  what  vast  multitudes  of  persons  its  cultivation, 
transportation,  and  preparation  for  use  afford  profitable  means 
of  support. 

There  is  scarcely  any  other  item  of  commerce  that  has  made 


41        CULTIVATION  OF  COFFEE  IX  VARIOUS   COUNTRIES. 

more  rapid  progress  in  the  world,  or  gained  for  itself  more 
general  acceptation  with  all  classes,  than  coffee.  Its  constantly 
increasing  consumption  as  a  beverage,  as  seen  by  the  statistical 
tables,  clearly  proves  that  it  may  be  regarded  not  only  as  one  of 
the  necessities  of  civilized  life,  but  also  as  a  very  important  one. 
Two  things  connected  with  coffee  conduce  to  its  popularity, — 
its  refreshing,  restoring,  and  exhilarating  qualities  and  its  noii- 
inebriating  influence.  A  beverage  that  shall  be  found  to 
combine  these  essential  requisites  is,  indeed,  a  sine  qua  non 
with  multitudes,  who,  while  they  would  seek  the  stimulant, 
would  also  avoid  the  penalty  of  the  intoxicating  draught. 
Coffee,  therefore,  is  to  be  regarded  as  an  auxiliary  to  temper- 
ance ;  since  its  use  tends  largely  to  supersede  that  of  spirituous 
liquors.  This  continued  increase  in  the  demand  for  the  bever- 
age, irrespective  of  climatic  influences,  will  of  necessity  extend 
the  present  area  of  its  cultivation  largely  into  those  belts 
of  land  which  are  favorable  to  the  production  of  the  plant. 
These  lands  are  found  lying  principally  between  the  isothermal 
lines  of  25°  north  and  30°  south  of  the  equator,  as  may  be 
seen  by  reference  to  the  accompanying  Map.  It  has  been 
ascertained  that  the  plant  cannot  be  grown  to  advantage  in 
places  where  the  thermometer  descends  at  any  time  below  55°. 

Besides  the  existing  countries  where  coffee  is  cultivated, 
there  are  many  other  places  where  it  might  be  extensively 
grown,  such,  for  instance,  as  the  western  coast  of  Africa 
generally,  the  interior  ranges  of  Natal,  the  mountain  ranges 
on  the  northern  coast  of  Australia,  from  Moreton  Bay  to  Torres 
Straits,  &c.  Soil  and  climate  are  the  circumstances  which 
chiefly  affect  its  commercial  value. 

The  cultivation  of  coffee  is  now  widely  diffused  over  all  the  tro- 
pical parts  of  the  world.  It  is  found  in  most  of  the  West  India 
Islands,  in  the  provinces  of  Central  America,  Cayenne,  Peru, 
Bolivia,  and  especially  Brazil — the  greatest  market  of  all.  It 


CULTIVATION  OF   COFFEE  IN  VARIOUS   COUNTRIES.        45 

is  widely  spread  over  Arabia,  the  western  coast  of  India, 
Ceylon,  Sumatra,  Bourbon,  Mauritius,  Java,  and  some  of  the 
Pacific  Islands;  and  in  many  of  these  places  it  is  found  in 
climates  differing  as  much  as  20°  in  average  temperature. 
By  reference  to  the  Map,  a  bird's-eye  view  may  be  obtained 
of  the  several  places  where  the  berry  is  most  cultivated  or 
where  it  may  be  advantageously  produced.  According  to 
M.  Lascelles,  "The  coffee-plant  will  bear  extremes  of  cli- 
mate better  than  most  plants.  In  Jamaica  it  is  found  on 
the  Blue  Mountain,  upwards  of  6,000  feet  above  the  sea; 
and  in  the  East  Indies  it  is  seen  growing,  and  producing  at 
Coonoor  on  the  ]S"eilgherries,  at  a  similar  elevation ;  whilst,  on 
the  other  hand,  it  is  also  seen  growing  at  the  level  of  the  sea 
in  both  hemispheres,  a  difference  of  average  temperature  of 
from  20°  to  30°.  It  has  been  contended  by  some  that  the 
coffee  produced  at  a  high  elevation  is  of  a  finer  quality  than 
that  grown  in  a  warmer  temperature ;  this  is,  however,  gener- 
ally considered  questionable." 

"  'JVhen  grown  at  the  extremes  of  climate  it  is  small,  gener- 
ally much  lighter,  and  the  actual  number  of  berries  is  far  less 
than  that  grown  in  a  genial  climate.  Experience  has  proved 
that  from  lat.  6°  to  12°  an  elevation  of  from  3,000  to  4,000  feet 
is  the  most  suited,  whilst  beyond  this  500  feet  of  elevation 
should  be  allowed  for  every  degree  of  latitude.  It  is  now  an 
ascertained  fact  that  much  of  the  far-famed  Mocha  coffee  is 
produced  in  the  East  Indies  and  shipped  to  Mocha ;  and  no  in- 
considerable portion  also  comes  from  the  low  land  of  Kaffa  and 
Enarea,  in  Africa.  The  excellence  of  Mocha  coffee  appears  to 
consist  more  in  the  name  and  method  of  curing  than  any  other 
cause." 

A  recent  authority  remarks :  "  It  is  often  the  case  that  theory 
is  opposed  to  practice  in  upholding  the  idea  that  there  is  any 
substantial  difference  in  the  coffee  grown  in  different  countries. 


46        CULTIVATION  OF   COFFEE  IX  VARIOUS   COUNTRIES. 

Where,  such  difference  is  really  found  to  exist,  it  will  generally 
be  the  result  of  different  modes  of  cultivation  and  preparation 
for  the  market,  or  what  is  known  as  curiiio*. 

'  O 

"  The  quantity  of  rain  is  found  to  exercise  a  material  effect 
on  the  quality  of  the  crop,  and  a  dry  climate  produces  a 
better  flavored  and  more  colory  bean  than  the  excessive 
moisture  prevalent  on  some  of  the  most  highly  esteemed 
districts,  both  in  the  eastern  and  western  hemispheres.  It  may 
be  mentioned  in  proof  of  the  first  of  these  statements,  that  the 
size  and  appearance  of  the  bean  have  been  entirely  changed 
by  improved  or  neglected  cultivation,  and  in  one  estate  in 
India  the  beans  are  scarcely  larger  than  sweet-peas,  owing  to 
the  proprietor  having  adopted  a  theory  of  never  pruning  the 
trees;  whilst  several  estates  that  had  been  neglected  have 
improved  both  in  quality  and  quantity  of  produce  to  an  extent 
scarcely  credible  since  they  have  been  manured  and  pruned. 
Seeds  from  Mocha,  Brazil,  and  Java  have  been  tried  in  Ceylon 
and  India,  and  the  produce  has  not  differed  in  any  respect 
from  that  of  the  plants  already  in  existence  there.  t  An 
excessively  moist  climate  has  further  a  tendency  to  pro- 
duce long,  weak,  elongated  shoots,  drooping  at  the  extremi- 
ties, and  the  foliage  thin,  the  leaf  long,  but  devoid  of  sub- 
stance. 

"  The  coffee-tree  flourishes  in  hilly  districts  where  its  root 
can  be  kept  dry  wThile  its  leaves  are  refreshed  with  frequent 
showers.  Rocky  ground  with  rich  decomposed  mould  in  the 
fissures  agrees  best  with  it.  Though  it  would  grow  to  the 
height  of  fifteen  or  twenty  feet,  yet  it  is  usually  kept  down 
by  pruning  to  that  of  five  feet,  for  increasing  its  productive- 
ness, as  well  as  for  the  convenience  of  cropping.  It  begins 
to  yield  fruit  the  third  year,  but  is  not  generally  in  full 
bearing  until  the  fifth.  In  coffee  husbandry  the  plants 
should  be  placed  eight  feet  apart,  as  the  trees  throw  out 


CULTIVATION  OF  COFFEE  IN  VARIOUS  COUNTRIES.        47 

extensive  horizontal  branches,  and  in  holes  ten  or  twelve  feet 
deep,  to  secure  a  constant  supply  of  moisture. 

"  The  berries,  as  a  general  rule,  when  ripe  are  picked  and 
spread  out  on  large  drying-grounds,  and  are  dried  with  the 
pulp  and  parchment  on  the  bean;  when  thoroughly  dry 
the  berries  are  passed  under  wooden  rollers,  or  pounded  in 
wooden  mortars,  and  the  outer  skin  being  thus  removed,  the 
beans  are  winnowed,  garbled,  sized  and  packed  for  the  market. 
The  coffee  prepared  in  this  way  is  seldom  so  even  in  color 
and  appearance,  but  the  aroma  is  better.  This  method  is, 
however,  open  to  serious  objections.  Owing  to  the  much 
greater  bulk  of  the  coffee  before  the  pulp  is  removed,  the 
room  for  drying  would  require  to  be  very  extensive,  and  as 
coffee  is  very  liable  to  ferment  in  the  pulp,  it  must  be  laid 
very  thin,  and  constantly  turned ;  whilst  in  the  event  of  wet 
weather  or  exposure  to  moisture,  or  the  equally  dangerous 
alternative  of  heaping  it  up,  the  whole  would  ferment  and 
be  utterly  spoiled." 

The  system  pursued  by  most  planters  for  removing  the 
pulp  is  by  machinery.  After  being  washed  and  put  on  the 
barbecues  to  dry,  it  is  of  importance  to  keep  the  coffee 
constantly  turned  until  it  is  all  surface-dry,  and  the  beans 
cease  to  adhere  to  each  other,  but  it  should  not  be  exposed 
to  sun  or  wind  until  the  parchment  cracks,  as  every  hour's 
exposure  to  the  atmosphere,  after  that  is  removed,  takes 
away  both  from  the  color  and  the  aroma  of  the  bean.  Of 
course  what  has  been  said  presupposes  that  the  coffee  is 
picked  "when  fully  ripe,  since  no  care  in  curing  or  packing 
will  impart  color  or  flavor  to  a  half -ripe  bean.  For  packing, 
casks  or  cases  are  preferable  to  sacks,  since  coffee  has  a 
strong  attraction  for  damp  and  for  all  scents,  and  its  aroma 
will  also  suffer  by  its  contact  with  any  substance  with  which 
it  may  be  brought  into  connection.  There  are  said  to  be 


48        CULTIVATION  OF   COFFEE  IX  VARIOUS   COUNTRIES. 

ten  varieties  of  the  coffee,  but  only  one  is  found  indigenous 
to  India,  and  it  is  questionable  if  this  is  not  the  Mocha 
species  introduced  from  Arabia. 

The  island  of  Ceylon  is  situated  in  the  Indian  Ocean,  and 
belongs  to  Great  Britain.  Little  is  known  of  the  aboriginal 
inhabitants  of  the  island;  at  present  they  resemble  the  Hin- 
doos of  the  neighboring  continent,  and  consist  in  part  of 
Singhalese.  The  Singhalese  spoken  language  is  peculiar  to 
this  island;  but  their  written  language  is  either  Pali  or 
Sanscrit.  Ceylon  claims  to  possess  historical  records  dating 
back  some  twenty-four  centuries,  and  their  authenticity  as 
regards  descriptions  of  ancient  towns,  buildings,  and  works  of 
art  is  established  by  existing  ruins,  proving  that  the  island  had 
been  at  a  remote  period  inhabited  by  a  powerful  and  numerous 
people.  Ceylon  was  known  to  the  Greeks  and  Romans  in  the 
time  of  Alexander ;  it  was  also  visited  by  traders  in  the  sixth 
century,  and  by  Marco  Polo  in  the  thirteenth  century.  Little 
was  known  of  it,  however,  until  1505,  when  the  Portuguese 
established  a  regular  intercourse  with  the  island,  being  encour- 
aged thereto  by  the  King  of  Kandy,  who  first  paid  them 
tribute  in  cinnamon,  to  defend  the  island  against  the  Arabian 
pirates.  The  Portuguese  were  subsequently  expelled  by  the 
Dutch,  who  in  turn  were  driven  from  the  island  by  the 
British.  "  The  total  export  of  coffee  from  Ceylon  in  the  year 
1837  was  valued  at  less  than  $500,000. 

"  In  1870  the  export  was  over  94,000,000  Ibs.,  equivalent  to 
fully  $17,500,000  in  the  consuming  markets.  Within  the  past 
fifteen  years  even  the  number  of  coffee  plantations  in  Ceylon 
has  increased  from  404  to  1,004 ;  the  extent  of  land  planted 
from  80,000  acres  to  200,000,  or  over  312  square  miles,  and 
the  crops  have  generally  been  favorable.  This  is  exclusive  of 
coffee  cultivated  by  the  natives  in  their  gardens,  supposed  to 
cover  50,000  acres  more.  'Native'  coffee  is  the  kind  usually 


CULTIVATION  OF   COFFEE  IN  VARIOUS   COUNTRIES.        49 

exported  from  Ceylon  to  Europe,  America,  and  the  Australian 
colonies,  and  it  is  prepared  for  the  market  after  a  different 
fashion  from  the  plantation  kinds,  which  are  generally  dearer. 
There  are  now  1,000  working  coffee  plantations  in  Ceylon, 
requiring  200,000  coolies  (men,  women,  and  children  from 
Southern  India)  to  cultivate  and  gather  crops,  and  worth  for 
the  312  miles  of  cultivation,  together  with  the  buildings, 
machinery,  and  stock,  not  less  than  $35,000,000." 

The  most  suitable  soil  in  the  East  Indies  for  the  coffee-plant 
is  that  which  grows  soft  timber.  The  latest  authorities  seem 
to  confirm  the  opinion  of  Laborie,  who  observes :  "  If  the  first 
(tap  root)  finds  the  quickstone,  gravel-stone,  or  clay,  the  tree 
will  not  last  long ;  but  if  it,  as  well  as  the  roots,  find  their 
way  through  stony  ground,  and  if  there  be  a  good  proportion 
of  mould,  it  suffers  no  inconvenience,  as  the  stones  keep  the 
mould  together."  The  finest  estates  are  said  to  be  of  this  latter 
character  of  soil,  and  have  given  consecutively  heavy  crops, 
with  the  assistance  of  little  or  no  manure.  While  estates  of  a 
lighter  soil,  having  lost  nearly  all  the  mould,  and  having  no 
good  subsoil,  have  to  be  regularly  manured.  In  a  word,  a 
dark  chocolate-colored  soil,  mixed  with  small  stones,  under 
ledges  of  rock,  and  bestrewn  with  boulders,  is  the  best ;  and 
the  most  favorable  elevation  is  3,000  feet.  A  level  piece  of 
virgin  ground,  not  far  from  water,  where  the  soil  is  rich  and 
crumbly,  is  the  most  eligible  for  the  construction  of  a  nursery. 
First  the  land  must  be  thoroughly  cleared,  and  all  but  the 
largest  stumps  of  the  forest-trees  rooted  out ;  the  soil  must  be 
dug  to  the  depth  of  nine  or  twelve  inches,  and  be  made  as 
friable  as  possible,  then  divided  into  beds  with  narrow  paths 
between  them,  the  seed,  in  parchment  (generally  taken  from 
the  cisterns  after  being  pulped),  should  be  put  in,  row  by  row, 
about  six  inches  apart.  A  rope  the  length  of  the  beds  is  used 
for  this  purpose,  stretched  from  one  end  of  the  beds  to  the 
3 


50        CULTIVATION  OF  COFFEE  IN  VARIOUS  COUNTRIES. 

other.  The  seed,  if  sown  in  suitable  weather,  soon  makes  its 
appearance  above  the  surface ;  so  that  a  nursery  made  in 
May  or  June  of  one  year  has  plants  fit  to  put  out  at  the 
same  date  in  the  following  year.  A  slightly  inclined  piece  of 
land  is  more  desirable  for  a  nursery,  because  the  natural  drain- 
age would  be  better ;  and  it  is  important  that  care  should  be 
taken  to  prevent  damage  by  heavy  rains.  One  bushel  of  parch- 
ment coffee  is  calculated  to  yield  about  30,000  plants ;  so  that 
for  a  clearing  of  100  acres,  four  or  five  bushels  of  seed  would 
be  required.  When  the  young  trees  in  a  nursery  have  attained 
a  growth  and  age  at  which  their  being  planted  out  as  plants 
becomes  rather  a  doubtful  proceeding,  with  reference  to  the 
probability  of  their  succeeding  and  taking  root,  it  is  better  to 
make  "stumps"  of  them:  this  is  done  by  pulling  them  up, 
with  as  little  injury  as  possible  to  the  roots,  and  cutting  them 
down  to  about  six  inches  above  the  root ;  then  to  shorten  the 
tap-root  by  a  careful  sloping  cut ;  next  to  trim  the  other  lateral 
roots,  which  are  often  needlessly  extended.  Filling  in  is  the 
operation  that  follows  holing.  It  has  been  ascertained  by 
experience,  that  leaving  the  holes  open  for  some  time  is  very 
beneficial  to  the  soil  in  a  chemical  point  of  view.  Filling  in, 
like  every  other  work  on  a  coffee  estate,  should  be  carefully 
superintended.  But  of  all  operations  in  the  formation  of 
a  coffee  plantation,  the  actual  placing  of  the  plants  in  the 
holes  is  the  one  that  requires  the  utmost  care  and  attention. 
Early  planting  is,  of  course,  desirable,  because  the  trees  have 
the  benefit  of  the  entire  rainy  season,  and  are  sure  to  give  a 
larger  maiden  crop.  The  usual  course  of  transferring  the 
plants  is  as  follows:  when  pulled  up,  those  with  crooked 
roots  should  be  picked  out  and  thrown  away ;  the  roots  should 
then  be  trimmed  with  a  sharp  knife,  diminishing  the  length 
of  the  tap-root  sufficiently  to  prevent  the  chance  of  its  being 
bent  or  broken.  The  plant  should  not  be  put  deeper  into  the 


CULTIVATION  OF   COFFEE  IN  VARIOUS   COUNTRIES.         51 

earth  than  it  was  before  it  was  pulled  up ;  it  should  then  be 
pressed  down  with  the  hands  or  firmly  trodden  down.  A 
coffee  plantation,  to  be  worked  effectively,  requires  to  be  well 
"  roaded "  and  drained.  Drains,  like  roads  and  paths,  should 
be  cut  as  soon  as  the  estate  is  commenced,  or  at  all  events 
before  the  trees  cover  the  ground,  or  the  coffee  will  suffer. 
These  drains  are  usually  about  fifteen  inches  wide  and  deep, 
and  at  the  distance  of  every  twenty  trees,  which  would  be 
about  120  feet  apart.  As  weeds  are  the  bane  of  coffee  estates, 
they  are  to  be  constantly  cleared  off,  at  least  once  a  month. 
When  the  trees  have  been  freed  from  suckers,  and  have 
reached  twelve  or  eighteen  months,  the  operation  of  tapping  is 
usually  commenced.  The  advantages  for  the  custom  are  thus 
detailed  by  Laborie :  "  First,  it  brings  the  fruit  within  easy 
reach,  and  prevents  the  branches  being  broken ;  secondly,  the 
tree  thereby  acquires  strength  and  vigor  both  below  and  above 
ground,  and  the  stem  becomes  larger  in  circumference; 
thirdly,  it  affords  less  hold  to  the  winds ;  fourthly,  the  form  of 
the  tree  is  more  beautiful ;  and  fifthly,  it  loses  none  of  its 
inferior  branches,  which,  as  nearer  the  source  of  vegetation, 

77  O 

are  better  nourished,  and,  of  course,  more  productive."  Plant- 
ers have  observed  that  the  part  of  the  tree  most  exposed  to  the 
sun  and  air  usually  bears  the  heaviest  clusters ;  therefore  the 
more  the  tree  is  thinned  out,  t*he  more  it  bears.  This  is 
exemplified  by  young  trees  in  their  second  and  third  crops, 
which  bear  very  heavily,  chiefly  from  the  primaries  and 
secondaries.  Commonly,  coffee-trees  bear  heavily  one  year 
and  lightly  the  next.  Regular  pruning  and  searching  have 
been  found  to  produce  the  most  satisfactory  result. 

The  next  thing  in  order  is  the  handling,  which  should  be 
done  twice  if  practicable  before  crop.  If  the  force  on  the 
estate  admits  of  it,  the  primings  should  be  buried  in  trenches 
between  the  trees.  They  soon  turn  into  vegetable  mould, 


2        CULTIVATION  OF   COFFEE  IX  VARIOUS   COUNTRIES. 

and  the  loosening  of  the  soil  and  cutting  of  the  long  fibrous 
roots  very  much  invigorate  the  trees.  In  the  same  manner, 
the  young  wood,  after  the  searching,  may  be  buried  with 
great  advantage  to  the  surrounding  trees.  No  branch  should 
be  allowed  to  bear  more  than  two,  or  at  most  three  crops; 
it  should  then  be  removed  to  make  room  for  a  fresh  one. 
As  the  same  wood  never  bears  twice,  the  branches,  if  allowed 
to  bear  more  than  three  crops,  degenerate  into  mere  whips, 
bearing  only  a  few  berries  at  the  extremities.  No  definite 
rule  can  be  given  for  pruning  old  trees,  however ;  as  M. 
Sabonadiere  informs  us,  much  depends  upon  their  condition. 
He  states  that  he  took  charge  of  an  estate,  some  portions  of 
it  at  a  great  elevation.  The  trees  had  not  been  pruned  for 
some  years,  and  were  a  mass  of  thick  cross  branches  and 
matted  leaves ;  a  man  might  have  made  a  bed  on  the  top  of 
them.  It  would  never  have  done  to  reduce  these  trees  at 
once  to  mere  primaries  or  parrot-poles.  The  course  pursued 
was  to  saw  out  the  cross  branches,  and  open  out  the 
centre  of  the  trees  about  eighteen  inches  in  circumference; 
then  to -take  off  and  thin  out  about  half  the  remaining;  wood: 

O 

the  effect  was  wonderful.  They  were  afterward  handled 
once  or  twice,  and  the  result  has  been  a  very  good  crop, 
on  a  property  which  had  not  yielded  a  remunerative  one 
for  many  years.  This  pruning  also  seemed  to  drive 
away  the  coffee-bug,  and  much  reduced  its  ravages.  Only 
during  the  three  or  four  days  of  blossom-time  is  it  ad  visa- 
able  to  stop  pruning,  otherwise  much  damage  may  be 
done,  and  the  crop  lost.  After  the  blossom,  and  when  it 
has  set,  all  the  more  care  is  needed  to  prune  with  caution, 
the  best  branches  being  retained;  while  those  which  should 
have  come  off,  even  if  they  have  crop  upon  them,  must  not 
be  left.  Sufficient  pruning  must  be  done  to  insure  a  supply 
of  new  wood,  and  to  give  health  and  vigor  to  the  tree  to 


CULTIVATION  OF   COFFEE  IN  VARIOUS   COUNTRIES.         53 

mature  its  crop.  It  has  been  effectually  proved  that 
draining  to  prevent  wash  and  waste  of  soil,  and  a  system 
of  manuring  while  the  trees  are  still  young  and  vigorous, 
tend  to  prolong  the  age  of  estates.  There  is  no  doubt 
that,  under  such  a  system,  coffee-trees  may  have  as  long 
an  existence  as  other  evergreens ;  excepting,  of  course, 
such  contingencies  as  over-bearing,  attacks  of  grubs,  the 
tap-root  coming  in  contact  with  rock,  or  becoming  rotten 
from  swampy  soil ;  all  of  which  bring  the  tree  to  premature 
decay.  For  that  destructive  scourge,  the  coffee-bug,  the 
following  remedy  has  been  tried  with  great  success :  namely, 
— to  apply  saltpetre  in  a  finely-powdered  state,  dusted 
over  the  tree  when  wet  with  rain  or  dew. 

Concerning  manures  much  has  been  written;  but  it  is  found 
by  experience  that  those  are  the  best  which  are  in  general  use : 
these  consist  of  bone-dust,  poonac,  guano,  lime,  salts,  wood- 
ashes,  burnt  clay,  pulp,  and  last,  but  not  least,  cattle-manure. 
Composts  should  be  applied  above  the  tree  in  semicircular 
holes ;  they  should  be  filled  in  with  any  prunings  or  vegetable 
matter  at  hand,  and  then  covered  by  the  loose  top  soil; 
the  new  earth  from  the  holes  should  be  used  to  cover  the 
roots.  The  earth  over  the  manure  should  be  well  trodden 
down,  to  prevent  its  being  washed  away  by  heavy  rains, 
or  turned  up  by  careless  weeders.  The  next  process 
consists  of  picking,  curing,  and  despatching  the  crop  for 
market.  When  coolies  are  turned  out  for  gathering  or 
picking  they  are  provided  with  what  is  called  in  planter- 
parlance  a  gunny-bag,  holding  from  two  to  three  bushels; 
they  have  also  smaller  sacks  fastened  round  their  waist; 
into  these  they  first  collect  the  berries,  and  then  fill  the 
larger  vessels.  When  fully  ripe,  the  sooner  the  coffee  is 
pulped  the  better,  otherwise  it  heats  and  the  color  of  the 
parchment  is  spoiled.  In  dry  weather  it  is  sometimes 


54        CULTIVATION  OF   COFFEE  IN  VARIOUS   COUNTRIES. 

necessary  to  sprinkle  water  over  the  cherry,  and  to  let  it 
soak  for  some  hours  to  make  it  pnlpable;  since  if  passed 
through  the  pulpers  in  a  dry  state,  it  would  be  much  cut 
and  damaged. 

Amongst  other  items  to  be  observed  in  the  culture  of  coffee, 
the  following  are  of  important  and  practical  value.  The  fruit 
should  be  gathered  in  when  resembling  ripe  cherries ;  it  should 
then  be  measured  and  thrown  into  a  loft  above  the  pulper  in  a 
heap.  It  should  be  submitted  to  the  first  process  of  machinery, 
the  pulper,  within  twenty-four  hours  after,  if  not  immediately. 
The  pulped  berries  may  remain  a  day  and  a  night,  for  the 
process  of  fermentation;  the  mucilaginous  matter  is  to  be 
then  washed  off.  In  an  hour  or  so  the  coffee  may  then 
be  removed  for  curing :  it  is  there  spread  out  thinly  and 
exposed  to  the  sun,  which  will  in  eight  or  nine  hours 
absorb  all  the  wrater,  and  leave  the  coffee  fit  for  housing. 
When  coffee  is  perfectly  cured — which  is  generally  ascer- 
tained by  threshing  out  a  few  berries  in  one's  hands,  and 
seeing  if  it  has  attained  its  horny  blue  color — it  is  then 
fit  for  milling,  which  is  the  second  process  it  has  to  undergo 
by  machinery.  Here  the  parchment  and  silver  skins  are 
dislodged  from  the  berry,  by  means  of  the  friction  of  a 
large  roller  passing  over  the  produce  in  a  wooden  trough. 
It  is  then  submitted  to  the  fanner  or  winnowing  machine, 
and  the  coffee  passed  through  two  or  three  sieves,  when 
it  comes  away  perfectly  clean,  and  thus,  being  sized,  hand- 
picked,  and  packed,  it  is  forwarded  by  mules  or  railroad 
to  market. 

A  recent  eastern  traveller,  Bickmore,  informs  us  that 
in  the  large  wooden  storehouses  where  the  coffee  is  received 
from  the  interior,  and  kept  for  exportation,  the  rich  aromatic 
fragrance  given  out  by  the  berry  differs  much  more  than 
any  one  would  believe  from  the  ordinary  fragrance  to 


CULTIVATION  OF  COFFEE  IN  VARIOUS  COUNTRIES.        55 

which  we  are  accustomed.  Here  it  is  stored  in  bags, 
just  as  it  comes  in  from  the  plantations.  "In  order  that 
I  might  see  what  superior  coffee  the  Minahassa  produces," 
he  says,  "the  Resident  had  several  bags  opened.  I  found 
the  kernels,  instead  of  being  opaque,  and  having,  as  we 
usually  see  them,  a  tinge  of  bronze,  were  translucent 
and  of  a  greenish-blue  color.  The  best  are  those  which 
have  these  characteristics,  and  at  the  same  time  are  very 
hard.  One  of  the  first  plants  raised  at  Batavia  was  sent 
to  Holland,  where  it  bore  fruit,  and  the  plants  from  its 
seeds  were  carried  to  Surinam,  where  they  flourished,  and 
in  1718  coffee  began  to  be  an  article  of  export  from  that 
port.  Ten  years  later  it  was  introduced  into  the  French 
and  English  islands  of  the  West  Indies,  having  previously 
been  successively  introduced  into  Java  and  Holland.  I  am. 
told  that  it  was  first  brought  here  from  Java  by  a  native 
prince,  and  the  remarkable  manner  in  which  it  thrived 
having  attracted  the  attention  of  the  officials,  more  trees 
were  planted.  There  has  been  a  steady  increase,  both  in 
the  number  of  trees  and  in  the  quantity  of  fruit  they 
have  yielded;  but  yet  not  more  than  one-half  the  number 
are  planted  that  might  be,  if  the  population  was  sufficiently 
great  to  take  care  of  them.  With  such  an  enormous  yield 
a  large  surplus  is  left  in  the  hands  of  the  government  after 
it  has  paid  the  natives  wrho  cultivate  it,  the  percentage  to 
the  chiefs,  and  the  cost  of  transportation  from  the  small 
storehouses  in  the  interior  to  the  large  warehouses  on  the 
coast,  from  which  it  is  put  on  board  of  vessels,  for  shipment 
to  Europe  and  America." 

When  Arabia  enjoyed  the  exclusive  monopoly  of  coffee,  it  was 
not  suspected  that  one  day  the  Island  of  Java  would  furnish 
for  the  use  of  the  civilized  world  over  130  millions  of  pounds 
per  annum.  The  selection  of  soil  and  situation  best  suited  for 


56        CULTIVATION  OF   COFFEE  IN  VARIOUS   COUNTRIES. 

the  growth  and  culture  of  coffee  in  Java,  differs  little  essential- 
ly from  that  of  other  oriental  plantations.  Valleys  lying  between 
high  mountains  are  preferred  here  for  coffee-growing,  because 
the  soil  which  is  washed  down  from  the  heights  affords  fresh 
food  continually  to  the  lowlands  ;  the  valleys  themselves  are  of 
the  proper  moisture,  since  the  hills  surrounding  them  attract 
the  rain. 

The  labor  by  which  coffee  is  planted  in  Java  and  its  produce 
collected  is  included  among  the  oppressions  or  forced  services 
of  the  natives,  and  the  delivery  of  it  into  the  government  stores 
among  the  forced  deliveries  at  inadequate  rates. 

Previous  to  the  year  1808  the  cultivation  of  this  plant  was 
principally  confined  to  the  Sunda  districts ;  there  were  but 
comparatively  few  plantations  in  the  eastern  districts,  and  the 
produce  which  they  were  capable  of  yielding  did  not  amount 
to  one-tenth  part  of  the  whole,  but  under  the  administration  of 
Marshal  Daendals  this  plant  usurped  the  soil  destined  for  the 
subsistence  of  the  people ;  every  other  kind  of  cultivation  was 
made  subservient  to  it,  and  the  withering  effects  of  a  govern- 
ment monopoly  extended  their  influence  throughout  every 
province  of  the  island. 

In  the  Sunda  districts  each  family  was  obliged  to  take  care 
of  1,000  coffee-plants,  and  in  the  eastern  districts,  where  new 
and  extensive  plantations  were  now  to  be  formed  on  soils  and 
in  situations  in  many  instances  by  no  means  favorable  to  the 
cultivation,  500  plants  were  the  prescribed  allotment. 

The  United  States  and  Holland  are  the  principal  markets 
for  Java  coffee,  and  it  is  distinguished  into  pale  yellow  and 
brown,  varieties  which  depend  on  the  curing  and  the  age  of 
the  commodity,  and  not  on  the  modes  of  culture  or  any  differ- 
ence in  the  plants  which  yield  them. 

The  pale  coffee  is  the  newest  and  lowest  priced,  the  brown  is 
the  oldest  and  most  esteemed.  Coffee  stored  in  Java  loses  the 


CULTIVATION  OF   COFFEE  IN  VARIOUS   COUNTRIES.        57 

first  year  8#,  the  second,  about  5$,  and  the  third,  about  2$, 
after  which  it  continues  stationary  and  assumes  a  brown  color. 
This  is  the  brown  coffee  of  commerce. 

Recent  scientific  discoveries  have  shown  that  the  improve- 
ment caused  by  keeping  Java  coffee  is  owing  to  the  evapora- 
tion of  the  caffeic  acid,  which  is  the  principle  that  imparts 
the  harsh,  bitter,  and  astringent  taste,  which  cannot  be  disguis- 
ed. It  is  very  much  the  same  change  that  takes  place  in  fine 
brands  of  wine,  which  acquire  their  rich,  mellow  flavors  only 
by  age.  Old  government  Java  coffee  has  always  been  highly 
prized  by  epicures.  Although  there  is  some  shrinkage  in  weight 
caused  by  keeping  coffee  for  a  length  of  time,  still  the  great 
improvement  and  increased  value  more  than  counterbalances 
this  loss.  By  carefully  examining  pale  and  brown  Java  coffee, 
much  difference  will  be  found  in  the  smell  of  the  raw  bean. 
There  is  a  particular  spicy  aroma  about  brown  Java  that  the 
pale  varieties  never  acquire  until  age  has  mellowed  and  chang- 
ed their  appearance. 

There  appeared  a  few  years  ago  a  work  bearing  the  title  of 
"  Max  Havelaar  ;  or,  the  Coffee  Auctions  of  the  Dutch  Trading 
Company."  The  author  wrote  under  the  pseudonym  of  Mul- 
tatuli ;  he  was  an  assistant  resident  of  -the  Dutch  government 
in  Java.  The  book  appeared  in  the  form  of  a  novel,  and  treated 
of  the  incredible  extortions  and  tyranny  of  which  the  natives  of 
the  Dutch  Indies,  "  that  magnificent  empire  of  Insulind,  which 
winds  about  the  equator  like  a  garland  of  emeralds,"  are  the 
victims  ;  and  how  he  tried  in  vain,  while  still  in  the  service  of 
the  government,  to  put  an  end  to  the  cruel  oppressions  that 
happen  every  day  in  those  countries.  Many  considered  it  an 
interesting  and  captivating  work  of  fiction,  but  the  author 
maintained  that  it  contained  nothing  but  facts,  and  the  govern- 
ment was  challenged  to  prove  the  substance  of  the  work  to  be 
false ;  but  its  truth  has  never  been  disputed.  It  proves  that 


58        CULTIVATION  OF   COFFEE  IN  VARIOUS  COUNTRIES. 

what  was  written  of  the  cruelties  and  sufferings  of  American 
slavery,  as  described  in  Uncle  Tom's  Cabin,  are  nothing  in 
comparison  to  the  sufferings  from  the  system  of  forced  labor  in 
the  Indies.  It  is  full  of  eccentricities,  and  the  characters  in- 
troduced are  original  and  amusing  ;  among  others  a  Mr.  Dry- 
stubble  is  described  as  the  type  of  a  Dutch  coffee-broker,  who 
knows  all  about  coffee,  and  makes  his  life  subservient  to  his 
vocation.  It  bears  evidence  throughout  of  having  been  written 
by  a  genius  of  that  order  which  only  appears  at  intervals,  and 
it  serves  to  throw  some  little  light  on  the  habits  of  the  millions 
of  natives  who  dwell  in  the  islands  of  the  Indian  Ocean,  where 
so  large  a  portion  of  our  supplies  of  coffee  are  obtained. 

Of  late  years  there  has  been  a  growing  desire  to  know  more 
about  the  great  coffee-producing  districts  in  Java  and  Sumatra. 
The  opening  of  the  Pacific  Railroad  and  the  successful  opera- 
tion of  the  submarine  cables  have  done  much  to  bring  about 
more  frequent  communication  with  these  important  countries. 
American  merchants  have  not  been  slow  in  availing  themselves 
of  the  advantages  in  becoming  better  acquainted  with  those 
who  have  established  important  houses  in  the  East  Indies,  and 
the  writer  is  particularly  indebted  to  Mr.  Charles  Dunlop,  of 
Singapore,  and  Mr.  John  Peet,  of  Batavia,  for  much  valuable 
information  concerning  the  cultivation  of  coffee.  Both  of  these 
gentlemen  recently  visited  this  country,  and  from  their  exten- 
sive experience  they  were  enabled  to  give  to  those  interested  in 
the  importation  of  coffee  many  interesting  details  concerning 
the  manners  and  customs  of  the  natives,  and  how  the  great 
traffic  with  the  interior  \vas  conducted  by  their  respective 
houses  for  their  foreign  constituents. 

o 

ISTot  far  from  Ayar-Bangis  is  the  port  to  which  the  coffee 
raised  in  the  valley  of  Rau,  in  the  interior,  is  brought  down, 
to  be  hence  shipped  in  praus  to  Padang,  where  it  is  placed 
in  the  government  storehouses  and  sold  at  auction  four  times 


CULTIVATION  OF  COFFEE  IN  VARIOUS   COUNTRIES.        59 

a  year,  viz.,  in  March,  June,  September,  and  .December. 
Natal,  about  twenty-five  miles  north  of  here,  is  the  chief 
port  to  which  is  brought  the  valuable  coffee  raised  in  the 
fertile  valley  of  Mandheling,  of  which  port  Elout  is  the 
capital.  Mr.  Bickmore  refers  to  a  portion  of  Sumatra 
where  the  Musi  makes  a  great  bend  to  the  south-west  and 
the  path  leads  eastward  over  a  gently  rising  elevation, 
on  the  top  of  which  is  a  large  and  most  thriving  coffee- 
garden,  and  near  by  are  rice-fields  which  yield  abundantly. 
"This  garden  has  been  very  lately  planted,  and  yet  all 
the  trees  that  are  old  enough  to  bear  are  nearly  loaded 
down  with  fruit.  The  rice-fields  show  that  an  abundance 
of  food  could  be  raised  here,  and  the  only  thing  that 
is  wanting  is  people  to  do  the  work.  The  elevated  sit- 
uation of  this  country  makes  it  very  healthy  for  for- 
eigners. If  any  one  could  obtain  a  grant  of  land  here, 
and  also  the  privilege  of  bringing  a  large  number  of 
Chinamen,  he  w^ould  certainly  realize  a  fortune,  for  coffee 
can  be  here  cultivated  with  little  care;  and  rice,  the 
staple  article  of  food  among  that  people,  can  be  raised 
in  any  quantity.  Such  a  privilege  could  not  be  obtained  at 
present,  but  the  liberal  tendency  of  the  government  of  the 
Netherlands  in  India  promises  that  it  may  be,  at  no  distant 
time  in  the  future.  Such  an  enterprise  would  not  have 
the  character  of  an  experiment,  for  the  facility  with  which 
coffee  and  rice  can  be  grown  has  already  been  shown  on 
this  plantation,  and  the  cost  of  transporting  it  to  Padang 
or  Palembang  would  be  very  light.  Sumatra  undoubtedly 
contains  large  quantities  of  gold,  but  the  true  source  of 
her  wealth  is  not  the  precious  metal  she  possesses,  but  the 
cups  of  coffee  she  produces." 

Of  Brazil,  the   popular   idea   seems  to  have  been,  that  it 
is   a  place  of   mighty  rivers  and  strange-looking  mountains, 


60        CULTIVATION  OF   COFFEE  IN  VARIOUS   COUNTRIES. 

earthquakes,  anacondas,  alligators,  with  luxuriant  fruits  and 
flowers,  palms,  with  gayly  plumaged  birds  and  monkeys. 
But  it  is  all  this  and  much  more  besides, — for  its  climate 
is  perpetual  summer,  and  its  scenery  the  most  beautiful 
known  even  to  tropical  regions.  The  empire  of  Brazil, 
although  stretching  over  a  territory  nearly  equal  to  one- 
half  of  the  entire  South  American  Continent,  with  a 
soil  unsurpassed  by  any  other  in  the  world,  yet  num- 
bers only  about  ten  millions  of  inhabitants.  Like  most 
tropical  countries,  it  does  not  evince  the  enterprise  and 
energy  so  characteristic  of  the  dwellers  in  higher  lati- 
tudes. The  Emperor,  Dom  Pedro,  is,  however,  undoubtedly 
inspired  with  progressive  ideas,  although  his  subjects  seem 
as  decidedly  opposed  to  them;  an  apathetic  indifference  to 
all  kinds  of  innovation  or  improvement  holds  them  spell- 
bound to  antiquated  usages  and  obsolete  forms.  With  a 
soil  so  fertile  and  a  climate  so  genial,  all  that  seems  requisite 
is  the  enterprise  of  capitalists,  and  the  application  of  the 
improved  industrial  arts,  to  render  Brazil  a  centre  of  greatly 
increased  and  increasing  commercial  importance.  The 
recent  abolition  of  slavery  by  the  Emperor  in  all  Government 
or  State  works,  by  the  substitution  of  free  labor,  is  of  itself 
a  great  advance  in  the  right  direction;  and  the  ultimate 
extinction  of  slavery  generally  will  be  accomplished  when  the 
existing  slaves  shall  have  passed  away,  since  their  children 
are  born  free.  When  the  swift  railroad  shall  have  wholly 
superseded  the  slow  mule  conveyance,  commerce  will  pro- 
portion ably  increase,  because  capitalists  and  free  labor  will 
yield  a  more  profitable  return.  Rio  de  Janeiro  is  distant  from 
New  York  about  four  thousand  eight  hundred  miles ;  that 
distance,  however,  might  be  virtually  much  reduced  by  the 
establishment  of  more  frequent  intercourse  with  it  by 
steamers.  Railroads  are  already  in  operation,  to  some  extent, 


CULTIVATION  OF   COFFEE  IN  VARIOUS   COUNTRIES.       61 

under  the  sanction  of  the  government;  and  there  are  others 
projected.  But  we  have  not  spoken  of  the  remarkable  beauty 
of  the  city,  and  especially  of  the  Bay  of  Rio  de  Janeiro,  which 
for  picturesque  scenery  has  been  thought  by  some  to  rival 
even  the  peerless  Bay  of  Naples.  The  former,  which  is  en- 
tered by  a  narrow  rocky  portal,  spreads  out  into  an  immense 
harbor,  or  inland  lake,  extending  a  distance  of  some  score 
of  miles,  from  north  to  south.  Passing  the  Sugar-loaf  at 
the  entrance  of  the  bay,  you  catch  a  view  of  the  vast  expanse 
of  water  and  the  distant  succession  of  mountain-peaks  which 
enclose  it,  and  which  form  a  magnificent  amphitheatre. 
They  are  called  the  Organ  Mountains,  from  their  seeming 
resemblance  to  the  pipes  of  an  organ.  Their  height 
averages  from  six  to  seven  thousand  feet.  The  name  Rio 
de  Janeiro,  literally,  river  of  January,  which  is  really  a 
misnomer,  it  being  a  bay,  not  a  river,  took  its  rise  from 
the  tradition  that  it  was  discovered  in  that  month,  which 
is  to  the  dwellers  in  that  clime  the  hottest  of  their  year. 
In  close  proximity  with  the  city  is  the  celebrated  Botanical 
Garden,  called  Bota  Foga,  which  is  rich  in  all  kinds  of 
rare  exotics,  including  the  banyan-tree,  and  has  a  splendid 
avenue  of  palms. 

Brazil,  indeed,  has  been  called  the  land  of  the  Cocoa 
and  the  Palm ;  but  it  may  with  equal  propriety  be  also 
designated  the  land  of  the  coffee-tree ;  since,  as  we  have 
already  intimated,  it  is  the  great  producing  country  whence 
we  derive  our  principal  supply  of  that  essential  to  our 
domestic  economy. 

Coffee,  although  a  native  of  the  Old  World,  has  long  been 
one  of  the  most  important  staples  of  the  ISTew.  Meyen  states 
that  he  even  found  some  coffee-trees  growing  wild  in  Brazil, 
not  far  from  Rio  Janeiro,  in  the  woods  of  Corcovado.  It  is  the 
great  commercial  staple  of  the  empire  of  Brazil,  which, 


62  CULTIVATION    OF   COFFEE   IN   VARIOUS    COUNTRIES. 

beyond  comparison,  is  now  the  greatest  coffee  producing  country 
of  the  globe.  Java  is  the  next  in  order,  and  although  the  lat- 
ter does  not  yet  contribute  one-half  the  quantity  of  the  former, 
yet  it  furnishes  nearly  three  times  as  much  as  other  markets. 
The  United  States  alone  imported  from  Brazil,  in  1871,  over 
two  hundred  million  pounds  of  Rio  coffee.  (See  TcMe.) 

The  first  coffee-tree  in  Brazil  was  planted  in  1754,  by 
Friar  Villaso,  in  the  garden  of  the  San  Antonio  Convent  at 
Rio  de  Janeiro.  Brazil  was  then  governed  by  the  Marquis 
de  Lavradio,  as  Viceroy.  The  first  fruits  of  the  tree  were 
presented  to  the  Marquis,  who  distributed  them  among  the 
planters,  explaining  to  them  the  advantages  of  adding  another 
valuable  article  of  produce  to  the  country ;  but,  strong  in  their 
prejudices  in  favor  of  sugar  and  indigo,  few  took  any  pains  to 
cultivate  it,  and  the  progress  of  increase  was  so  slow  and 
gradual,  that  in  1808,  when  Don  Joas  YI.  fled  from  Portugal 
to  Rio  de  Janeiro,  and  soon  after  opened  the  port  for  foreign 
trade,  the  annual  crop  of  coffee  did  not  exceed  30,000  bags  of 
160  pounds  each.  The  increase  until  1820  was  very  moderate, 
the  crop  then  being  about  100,000  bags.  The  high  prices 
ruling  in  Europe,  caused  by  the  falling  off  in  production  and 
increase  of  consumption  all  over  the  world,  stimulated  the 
planters  of  Brazil  to  extend  their  cultivation  of  coffee,  espe- 
cially as  the  price  of  sugar  had  declined,  and  indigo,  from  its 
inferior  quality,  became  neglected ;  also  that  much  less  capital 
was  required  for  the  cultivation  of  coffee.  The  importation  of 
slaves  at  that  time  was  great,  prices  low,  and  they  were  sold  to 
planters  on  long  credits,  payment  being  received  for  them  in 
produce.  This  enabled  those  of  small  means  to  buy  estates. 
Crops  being  abundant,  and  favorable  prices  obtained,  they 
were  soon  able  to  pay  off  their  debts,  and  establish  the  custom 
of  credit  which  was  denied  to  sugar  planters,  as  that  staple 
became  unprofitable  when  brought  into  competition  with  Cuba, 


CULTIVATION  OF   COFFEE  IN  VARIOUS   COUNTRIES.          63 

Porto  Rico,  and  other  sugar-producing  countries.  It  is  to  be 
observed  that  while  the  cultivation  of  sugar  was  declining  in 
Brazil,  and  coffee  increasing  and  superseding  it,  in  Cuba 
coffee  was  falling  off  rapidly  and  sugar  annually  increasing. 
We  now  find  at  the  present  time  that  there  is  hardly  enough 
coffee  raised  in  Cuba  to  supply  the  consumptive  demand, 
and  the  importation  of  Java  and  Rio  coffees  has  been  found 
necessary  to  supply  the  increasing  w^ants  of  the  inhabitants  of 
one  of  the  principal  producing  countries  of  former  times.  It 
was  not,  however,  until  after  the  Haytian  insurrection  that  coffee 
became  an  object  of  great  cultivation  and  commerce  in  Brazil. 
In  1809  the  first  cargo,  consisting  of  1522  bags,  was  sent  to 
Salem,  in  the  United  States,  per  ship  Marquis  de  Someruelas, 
and  all  the  coffee  raised  in  the  empire  in  that  year  scarcely 
amounted  to  30,000  sacks,  while  in  the  Brazilian  financial  year 
of  1871  there  were  exported  over  two  million  sacks. 

The  great  importance  which  coffee  has  acquired  of  late  years 
as  a  staple  of  commerce,  very  naturally  suggests  the  inquiry  as 
to  the  best  means  of  still  further  promoting  its  culture.  Since 
the  sugar  plantations  of  the  West  Indies  have  so  largely  super- 
seded those  of  coffee,  attention  has  been  directed  to  other  geo- 
graphical points  suited  to  its  growth.  Until  the  era  of  the 
French  revolution,  the  cultivation  of  coffee  could  scarcely  be 
said  to  have  reached  the  South  American  continent ;  till  then 
it  was  in  a  great  measure  confined  to  Arabia  and  the  Caribbean 
Archipelago.  Its  extreme  scarcity  during  the  Napoleonic  wars 
enhanced  its  price  so  enormously,  that  on  the  first  announce- 
ment of  peace,  in  1814,  many  coffee-plantations  were  formed  on 
the  Costa  Firme  of  South  America,  along  the  Brazilian  shores 
of  that  continent,  and  even  on  the  southern  coast  of  Africa. 
"Not  content,  however,  with  the  natural  increase  of  the  demand 
now  so  universally  made  for  this  important  berry,  France, 
England,  and  America  seem  to  have  entered  into  a  friendly  al- 


64:          CULTIVATION  OF   COFFEE  IN  VARIOUS  COUNTRIES. 

liance  in  endeavoring  to  stimulate  yet  further  the  production 
by  means  of  premiums  for  the  most  improved  machinery  and 
inventive  skill  devoted  to  its  culture  and  preparation. 

The  great  coffee  region  is  on  the  banks  of  the  Rio  Parahiba 
and  in  the  province  of  San  Paulo ;  but  every  year  it  is  more 
widely  cultivated,  and  a  considerable  quantity  is  now  grown  in 
provinces  farther  northward.  It  can  be  planted  by  burying 
the  seeds  or  berries  (which  are  double),  or  by  slips.  The 
plants  which  have  been  taken  from  the  nursery  with  balls  of 
mould  around  their  roots  will  bear  fruit  in  two  years ;  those 
detached  from  the  earth  will  not  produce  until  the  third  year, 
and  the  majority  of  such  shrubs  die.  In  the  province  of  San 
Paulo  and  the  richest  portions  of  Minas-Geraes  one  thousand 
trees  will  yield  from  2,560  to  3,200  pounds ;  in  Rio  de  Janeiro, 
from  1,600  to  2,560.  In  some  parts  of  San  Paulo,  one  thousand 
trees  have  yielded  6,400  pounds;  but  this  is  rare.  In  the 
province  of  Rio  de  Janeiro,  trees  are  generally  cut  down  every 
fifteen  years  ;  there  are  some  cafiers,  however,  which  continue 
to  bear  several  years  longer.  As  a  general  rule  they  are  not 
allowed  to  exceed  eight  feet  in  height,  so  as  to  be  in  reach. 
There  are  three  gatherings  in  the  year,  and  the  berries  are 
spread  out  upon  pavements,  or  level  portion  of  ground  (the 
terrene*),  whence  they  are  taken  when  dry,  and  denuded  of  the 
hull  by  machinery,  and  afterward  conveyed  to  market. 

In  Brazil,  coffee  is  planted  in  the  following  manner  :  "The 
fresh  beans  are  sown  generally  in  the  shade  of  coffee-trees,  and 
the  little  plants  are  taken  up,  with  the  earth  about  them,  so 
soon  as  they  have  reached  the  height  of  twelve  inches.  They 
are  so  planted  that  the  stems  are  from  four  to  six  feet  apart. 
By  cutting  off  the  rankest  shoots,  the  coffee-trees  in  plantations 
are  prevented  becoming  more  than  twelve  feet  in  height,  that 
the  fruit  which  ripens  in  the  20th,  or  even  not  till  the  32d 
month  after  the  transplantation,  may  be  the  more  easily 


CULTIVATION  OF  COFFEE  IN  VARIOUS  COUNTRIES. 


65 


plucked.  After  four  or  five  years  the  crop  is  very  good,  and 
then  one  servant  is  kept  for  every  1,000  plants.  The  coffee- 
tree  yields  three  crops  annually,  which  furnish  employment  for 
almost  the  whole  year. 


METHODS   OF  MAKING   COFFEE. 

IT  may  seem  almost  superfluous  to  devote  a  chapter  to  the 
discussion  of  the  best  method  of  making  a  cup  of  coffee ;  but 
since  more  depends  upon  the  manner  in  which  it  is  made  than 
is  usually  imagined,  it  may  not  be  inappropriate  to  offer  a  few 
words  upon  the  subject. 

We  propose,  therefore,  to  allude  briefly  to  the  many  modes 
which  have  been  resorted  to  for  preparing  and  making  coffee, 
both  at  home  and  abroad.  While  we  do  not  deny  the  ad- 
vantages of  many  of  the  following  methods,  it  is  believed 
that  the  process  of  distillation,  by  the  direct  application  of 
steam  heat,  as  fully  described  in  the  closing  remarks  of 
this  chapter,  is  eventually  destined  to  be  the  universal  favo- 
rite. First  of  all,  before  speaking  of  the  manner  of  pre- 
paring the  berry  as  a  beverage,  we  will  mention  that  the 
leaf  of  the  coffee-plant  is  used  in  the  Eastern  Archipel- 
ago by  the  natives  as  a  substitute  for  tea.  They  roast  the 
leaves  over  a  clear,  smokeless  fire,  after  which  they  are  picked 
from  the  twigs,  and  when  immersed  in  boiling  water  they  form 
an  agreeable  drink.  A  few  years  ago  the  attention  of  the 
scientific  world  was  drawn  to  this  subject,  in  the  first  instance, 
by  Brande,  and  subsequently  by  Ward,  in  his  able  papers 
published  in  the  Singapore  Free  Press  and  elsewhere.  He 
seems  to  claim  for  roasted  coffee-leaves  a  value  unsurpassed  by 
the  berry  itself.  "  It  was  well  known,"  he  says,  "  that  they  had 
been  long  employed  in  Sumatra  under  the  name  of  coffee-tea." 


METHODS   OF   MAKING  COFFEE.  67 

That  this  preparation  contains  a  considerable  amount  of  the 
nutritious  element  of  coffee  is  evident  from  the  analysis ;  but 
as  the  leaves  can  only  be  collected  in  a  good  state  at  the  expense 
of  the  coffee-plant,  it  is  doubtful  whether  the  coffee  produced 
by  the  berries  be  not,  after  all,  the  cheapest,  as  it  certainly  is 
the  best. 

In  Arabia  we  find  the  method  of  preparing  and  using  coffee 
very  interesting.  Palgrave,  in  his  recent  work,  gives  full  and 
entertaining  descriptions  of  the  manners  and  customs  of  the 
people  and  their  great  fondness  for  coffee.  He  thus  describes 
an  Arabian  dwelling  and  their  method  of  making  coffee : — 

"  The  walls  are  colored  in  a  rudely  decorative  way  and  sunk 
here  and  there  into  small  triangular  recesses,  destined  to  the 
reception  of  books,  lamps,  and  other  such  like  objects.  The 
roof  of  timber,  and  flat ;  the  floor  strewed  with  fine  clean  sand, 
and  garnished  all  around  alongside  of  the  walls  with  long  strips 
of  carpet,  upon  which  cushions,  covered  with  silk,  are  disposed 
at  suitable  intervals.  In  poorer  dwellings  felt  rugs  usually 
take  the  place  of  carpets. 

"In  one  corner,  that  farthest  removed  from  the  door,  stands  a 
small  fireplace  or  furnace,  formed  of  a  large  square  block  of 
granite  or  some  other  hard  stone ;  this  is  hollowed  inwardly  into 
a  deep  funnel,  open  above,  and  communicating  below  with  a 
small  pipe-hole,  through  which  the  air  passes,  bellows-driven,  to 
the  lighted  charcoal ;  the  water  in  the  coffee-pot  placed  upon  the 
funnel's  mouth  is  thus  readily  brought  to  boil.  This  system  of 
coffee  furnaces  is  universal,  and  this  corner  of  the  dwelling  or 
K^Jiawah,  as  it  is  called,  is  considered  the  place  of  distinction, 
whence  honor  and  coffee  radiate  by  progressive  degrees  round 
the  apartment ;  and  hereabouts  accordingly  sits  the  master  of 
the  house  himself,  or  the  guests  whom  he  especially  delights  to 
honor. 


68  METHODS   OF  MAKING   COFFEE. 

"  On  the  broad  edge  of  the  furnace  stands  an  ostentations 
range  of  coffee-pots,  varying  in  size  and  form ;  some  are  very  tall 
and  slender,  with  several  ornamented  circles  and  mouldings  in 
elegant  relief.  The  number  of  these  utensils  is  sometimes  extra- 
vagantly great ;  as  many  as  a  dozen  at  a  time  may  be  seen  in  a 
row  by  one  fireside,  though  coffee -making  requires  only  three  at 
most.  Five  or  six  are  considered  to  be  the  thing ;  but  when 
doubled  it  indicates  the  riches  and  munificence  of  the  owner, 
by  implying  the  frequency  of  his  guests  and  the  large  amount 
of  coffee  that  he  is  in  consequence  obliged  to  have  made  for 
them.  Behind  sits  a  slave,  whose  name  is  generally  a  diminu- 
tive, in  token  of  affection ;  his  occupation  is  to  make  and  pour 
out  the  coffee.  On  entering,  it  is  proper  to  say  'Bismillah,' 
i.  e.j  '  in  the  name  of  God ; '  not  to  do  so  would  be  looked  on 
as  a  bad  augury  alike  for  him  who  enters  and  for  those  within. 

"  The  guest  then  goes  to  the  master  of  the  house,  each  repeats 
once  more  his  greetings,  followed  by  set  phrases  of  polite  in- 
quiry. 

"  Taking  the  honored  post  by  the  fireplace,  an  apologetical 
salutation  is  given  to  the  slave  on  the  one  side  and  to  his  nearest 
neighbor  on  the  other.  The  best  cushions  and  newest-looking 
carpets  have  been  prepared.  Shoes  or  sandals  are  slipped  off 
on  the  sand  just  before  reaching  the  carpet;  the  riding-stick  or 
wand,  the  inseparable  companion  of  every  true  Arab,  is  to  be 
retained  in  the  hand,  and  will  serve  for  playing  with  during  the 
pauses  of  conversation.  "Without  delay  the  slave  begins  the 
preparations  for  coffee,  placing  the  largest  of  the  coffee-pots, 
about  two-thirds  full  of  clear  water,  close  by  the  edge  of  the 
glowing  coal-pit,  that  its  contents  may  become  warm  while 
other  operations  are  in  progress;  Taking  a  dirty  knotted  rag 
out  of  a  niche  in  the  wall  close  by,  and  having  untied  it,  he 
empties  out  a  few  handfuls  of  unroasted  coffee,  which  are 


METHODS   OF  MAKING  COFFEE.  69 

placed  on  a  little  trencher  of  platted  grass,  when  all  blackened 
grains  or  other  non-homologous  substances  *are  picked  out. 
After  much  cleansing  and  shaking  the  grains  are  poured  into 
a  large  open  iron  ladle,  which  is  placed  over  the  mouth  of  the 
funnel,  stirring  them  carefully  round  and  round  till  they 
crackle,  redden,  and  smoke  a  little,  but  withdrawing  them 
from  the  heat  long  before  they  turn  black  or  charred;  after 
which  they  are  put  to  cool  a  moment  on  the  grass  platter. 
Drawing  between  his  trouserless  legs  a  large  stone  mortar,  with 
a  pit  large  enough  to  admit  the  stone  pestle,  and  pouring  in 
the  half-roasted  berries,  he  proceeds  to  pound  them  with  won- 
derful dexterity,  never  missing  a  blow,  till  the  beans  are 
smashed,  but  not  reduced  to  powder.  After  these  operations, 
which  are  performed  with  much  seriousness  and  deliberation, 
a  smaller  coffee-pot  is  taken  in  hand,  which  he  fills  more  than 
half  with  hot  water  from  the  larger  vessel,  and,  shaking  the 
pounded  coffee  into  it,  sets  it  on  the  fire  to  boil,  occasionally 
stirring  it  with  a  small  stick  as  the  water  rises,  to  check  ebul- 
lition and  prevent  overflowing.  Nor  is  the  boiling  stage  to 
be  long  or  vehement;  on  the  contrary,  it  should  be  as  light 
as  possible.  In  the  interim  he  takes  out  of  another  rag-knot 
a  few  aromatic  seeds  called  heyl,  an  Indian  product,  or  a 
little  saffron,  and,  after  slightly  pounding  these  ingredients, 
throws  them  into  the  simmering  coffee  to  improve  its  flavor, 
for  such  an  additional  spicing  is  held  indispensable  in  Arabia. 
Sugar  would  be  a  totally  unheard-of  profanation.  Last  of  all, 
he  strains  off  the  liquor  through  some  fibres  of  the  inner  palm- 
bark,  placed  for  that  purpose  in  the  jug-spout,  and  gets  ready 
the  tray  of  delicate  parti-colored  grass,  and  the  small  coffee- 
cups  ready  for  pouring  out.  •  All  the  preliminaries  have  taken 
up  a  good  half-hour.  Meantime  the  host  and  his  friends  have 
become  engaged  in  active  conversation,  while  the  silver  deco- 
rated swords  proclaim  the  importance  of  the  family  who  are 


TO  METHODS   OF  MAKING  COFFEE. 

assembled;  presently  a  large  wooden  bowl  full  of  dates,  with  a 
cup  of  melted  btltter  in  the  midst  of  the  heap,  is  presented ;  the 
host  says,  ( Semmoo,'  literally,  ( pronounce  the  name,'  of  God 
understood  ;  this  means,  '  Set  to  work  at  it.'  Every  one  picks 
out  a  date  or  two  from  the  juicy  mass,  dips  them  into  the  but- 
ter, and  thus  goes  on  eating  till  he  has  had  enough.  The  slave 
now  begins  his  round,  the  coffee-pot  in  one  hand,  the  tray  and 
cups  on  the  other.  The  first  pouring  out  he  must  drink  him- 
self, by  way  of  a  practical  assurance  that  there  is  no  ( death  in 
the  pot ; '  the  guests  are  next  served,  beginning  with  those  next 
the  honorable  fireside ;  the  master  of  the  house  receives  his 
cup  last  of  all.  To  refuse  would  be  a  positive  and  unpardon- 
able insult ;  but  one  has  not  much  to  swallow  at  a  time,  for  the 
coffee-cups,  or  'finjans,'  are  about  the  size  of  a  large  egg-shell 
at  most,  and  are  never  more  than  half  filled.  This  is  considered 
essential  to  good-breeding,  and  a  brimmer  would  here  imply 
exactly  the  reverse  of  what  it  does  in  Europe. 

i;  Be  this  as  it  may, '  Fill  the  cup  for  your  enemy '  is  an  adage 
common  to  all  Arabs.  The  beverage  itself  is  Singularly  aroma- 
tic and  refreshing,  a  real  tonic.  When  the  slave  presents  you 
with  a  cup,  he  never  fails  to  accompany  it  with  a  (  Semm,'  i  Say 
the  name  of  God,'  nor  must  you  take  it  without  answering 
'Bismillah.' 

"  When  all  have  been  thus  served,  a  second  round  is  poured 
out,  but.  in  inverse  order,  for  the  host  this  time  drinks  first  and 
the  guests  last.  On  special  occasions,  a  first  reception  for  in- 
stance, the  ruddy  liquor  is  a  third  time  handed  round  ;  nay,  a 
fourth  cup  is  sometimes  added.  But  all  these  put  together  do 
not  come  up  to  one-fourth  of  what  a  European  imbibes  in  a 
single  draught  at  breakfast." 

With  regard  to  the  making  of  coffee,  there  is  no  doubt  that 
the  Turkish  method  of  pounding  the  coffee  in  a  mortar  is 
much  superior  to  grinding  it  in  a  mill,  as  is  usual  with  us. 


METHODS  OF  MAKING  COFFEE.  71 

The  fondness  for  coffee  in  Turkey  is  shown  by  the  constant 
use  of  the  beverage  on  all  occasions,  and  its  exhilarating  qual- 
ities are  nowhere  more  highly  appreciated. 

The  great  luxury  of  the  Turkish  bath — now  no  longer  an  ex- 
clusive Oriental  custom,  since  its  general  introduction  in  this 
country  and  Europe — has  one  feature  in  the  Orient  that  has  not 
elsewhere  been  fully  introduced.  There  the  bather,  after  the 
fatigues  of  the  bath,  is  conducted  into  a  luxurious  apartment, 
where  comfortable  divans  and  soft  pillows  invite  him  to  tarry, 
and  enjoy  the  "  rest  after  toil,"  the  dolcefar  niente,  the  "  sweet 
do  nothing."  Presently  attendants  enter  bearing  fragrant  cof- 
fee served  in  delicate  little  china  cups,  which  further  adds 
to  the  rest  and  repose  from  all  care,  and  at  once  fills  the  recip- 
ient with  delight.  We  need  but  to  introduce  this  Eastern  cus- 
tom after  bathing,  for  coffee,  as  already  stated,  is  a  stimulant 
which,  unlike  wine,  does  not  enervate  or  excite  the  system. 

The  Turks  drink  their  coffee  very  hot  and  strong,  and  without 
sugar.  They  occasionally  use  spices  with  it,  such  as  bruised 
cloves,  or  aniseed,  or  a  drop  of  the  essence  of  amber.  But  after 
either  method,  the  process  recommended  by  M.  Soyer  may  be 
advantageously  adopted ;  namely,  "  Put  two  ounces  of  ground 
coffee  into  a  stew-pan,  which  set  upon  the  fire,  stirring  the 
coffee  round  with  a  spoon  until  quite  hot,  then  pour  over  a  pint 
of  boiling  water;  cover  over  closely  for  five  minutes,  pass  it 
through  a  cloth,  warm  again,  and  serve."  The  chemist  La- 
place explained  to  Napoleon  the  results  of  various  methods  of 
manipulation.  "  How  is  it,  sir,"  said  the  Emperor,  "  that  a  glass 
of  water  in  which  I  melt  a  lump  of  sugar  always  appears  to  me 
to  be  superior  in  taste  to  one  in  which  I  put  the  same  quantity 
of  powdered  sugar  \ "  — "  Sire,"  said  the  sage,  "  there  exist 
three  substances  'whose  elements  are  precisely  the  same ;  name- 
ly, sugar,  gum,  and  starch.  They  only  differ  under  certain 
conditions,  the  secret  of  which  Nature  has  reserved  to  herself ;  " 


72  METHODS  OF  MAKING  COFFEE. 

and  I  believe  that  it  is  possible  that,  by  the  collision  caused  by 
the  pestle,  some  of  the  portions  of  the  sugar  pass  into  the  con- 
dition of  gum  or  starch,  and  thence  arises  the  result  which  has 
been  observed. 

In  preparing  the  berry,  connoisseurs  in  coffee  will,  before 
roasting,  wash  the  grains  and  dry  them  on  a  pan,  placed  near 
the  fire  or  in  a  cool  oven.  "While  roasting  they  will  stir 
them  constantly,  that  all  may  be  equally  brown.  Some  persons 
think  the  aroma  improved  when  the  heat  is  not  greater  than  is 
sufficient  to  impart  a  light  brown  color  to  the  bean;  others 
prefer  the  coffee  roasted  to  a  dark  brown;  in  adopting  the 
latter,  care  should  be  used  to  avoid  burning  it.  To  produce  the 
beverage  in  perfection,  it  is  necessary  to  employ  the  best 
materials  in  its  preparation,— -fresh  roasted  and  fresh  ground. 
With  respect  to  quantity,  at  least  one  ounce  of  coffee  should  be 
used  to  make  three  ordinary-sized  cupf  uls.  The  coffee-pot  should 
be  heated  before  putting  in  the  coffee,  which  heating  may  be  done 
by  means  of  a  little  boiling  water.  WTien  so  prepared,  the 
boiling  water  should  be  poured  over  the  ground  coffee,  and  not, 
as  is  commonly  done,  put  in  first.  When  a  percolator  is  not 
used,  the  liquor  should  be  well  stirred  up  several  times  before 
finally  covering  it  up  to  settle  for  use. 

Liebig,  after  describing  its  properties  and  the  various 
methods  of  preparing  the  beverage,  recommends  the  follow- 
ing process,  which  seems  among  the  best  hitherto  proposed ; 
namely,  that  three-fourths  of  the  coffee  to  be  used  be  boiled, 
and  the  other  fourth  infused,  the  results  being  mixed.  By  this 
means  both  strength  and  flavor  are  insured.  To  preserve  the 
flavor  of  the  ground  coffee  he  recommends  that  the  powder 
should  be  wetted  with  a  syrup  of  sugar,  and  then  covered  with 
powdered  sugar.  The  volatile  parts  of  the  coffee  are  thus  pre- 
vented from  escaping.  When  coffee  has  been  roasted  and  is 
not  to  be  immediately  used,  it  should  be  placed  in  a  dry  situa- 


METHODS  OF  MAKING  COFFEE.  73 

tion,  and  excluded  from  the  atmosphere  as  soon  as  possible, 
since  it  absorbs  moisture  from  the  air  by  its  hygrometric  power, 
and  loses  its  flavor  by  keeping.  To  clarify  coffee,  the  French 
sometimes  sprinkle  on  the  surface  of  the  coffee  half  a  cup  of 
cold  water,  which,  from  its  greater  gravity,  descends  and  carries 
the  sediment  with  it. 

The  French,  who  are  celebrated  for  their  coffee-making,  use 
various  kinds  in  combination,  such  as  the  following :  Java, 
Mocha,  Rio,  and  Maracaibo.  These  coffees  are  so  delicately  and 
in  such  due  proportions  mixed,  as  to  produce  a  bouquet  of  aro- 
matic flavors.  They  sometimes  add  a  little  liqueur,  to  flatter 
an  epicurean  palate. 

Cafe-au-lait — that  is,  three  parts  of  milk  to  one  of  coffee — is, 
according  to  Dr.  Doran,  "  the  proper  thing  for  breakfast ;  but 
the  addition  of  milk  to  that  taken  after  dinner  is  a  cruelty  to 
the  stomach."  Yoltaire's  favorite  beverage  was  "  choca " — a 
mixture  of  coffee  (with  milk)  and  chocolate.  Napoleon,  it  is 
said,  was  fond  of  this  mixture. 

The  "  cafe  iioir "  of  the  French  is  coffee  made  strong  with 
water  only.  "  Cafe-au-lait "  must  not  be  made  by  boiling  coffee 
and  milk  together,  as  milk  is  not  proper  to  extract  the  essential 
properties  of  the  coffee,  and  coffee  must  first  be  made  as  "  cafe 
noir,"  only  stronger.  As  much  of  this  coffee  is  poured  into  the 
cup  as  is  required,  and  the  cup  is  then  filled  up  with  boiled 
milk.  Cafe  d  la  creme  is  made  by  adding  boiled  cream  to 
strong  clear -coffee  and  heating  them  together. 

Cafe  glace  is  made  by  adding  one  egg  to  every  six  cups  of 
cafe  noir.  Sweeten,  and  put  in  cream.  When  thoroughly 
mixed,  place  in  a  proper  cooler  surrounded  with  ice.  It  should 
be  frozen  to  the  consistency  of  rich  thick  cream,  and,  if  properly 
made,  will  be  found  a  delicious  and  refreshing  draught. 

One  of  the  most  universal  methods  of  making  coffee  is  to  put 
the  fresh-ground  coffee  into  a  coffee-pot  with  a  sufficient  quan- 
4 


74  METHODS   OF  MAKING  COFFEE. 

tity  of  water,  which  is  set  on  the  fire  until  it  boils,  and  the  cof- 
fee, if  allowed  time,  will  settle  of  itself — a  mode  adapted  to 
early  risers  and  those  in  no  hurry  for  breakfast. 

"  If  you  want  to  improve  your  understanding,  drink  coffee," 
said  Sydney  Smith.  Sir  James  Mackintosh  professes  that  he 
believed  the  difference  between  one  man  and  another  was  pro- 
duced by  the  quantity  of  coffee  he  drank  !  * 

Pope  was  among  confirmed  coffee-drinkers  ;  often  calling  up 
his  servant  in  the  night  to  prepare  a  cup  of  it  for  him.  It  was 
the  custom  in  his  day  to  grind  and  prepare  it  upon  the  table,  of 
which  practice  he  gives  us  the  following  details  in  verse : — 

"  For  lo  !  the  board  with,  cup  and  spoons  is  crowned, 
The  berries  crackle,  and  the  mill  turns  round ; 
On  shining  altars  of  Japan  they  raise 
The  silver  lamp  ;  the  fiery  spirits  blaze. 
From  silver  spouts  the  grateful  liquors  glide, 
While  China's  earth  receives  the  smoking  tide. 
At  once  they  gratify  their  sense  and  taste, 
And  frequent  cups  prolong  the  rich  repast. 
Coffee  ! — which  makes  the  politician  wise, 
And  see  through  all  things  with  his  half -shut  eyes  !  " 

Taken  in  moderation,  especially  if  combined  with  sugar  and 
milk,  coffee  is  unquestionably  the  most  wrholesome  beverage 
known.  In  a  medical  point  of  view,  it  has  been  regarded  as  a 
cerebral  stimulant  and  anti-soporific,  and  an  antidote  to  opium. 
As  a  medicine,  it  should  be  strong,  and  taken  lukewarm. 

Coffee,  when  taken  early  in  the  morning  before  rising,  some- 
times alleviates  an  attack  of  asthma  or  coughing,  and  thus 
proves  of  great  service  to  many  sufferers.  Still  it  must  not  be 
forgotten  that  it  is  a  stimulant,  and  if  taken  too  strong,  or  in 
too  great  quantities,  may  give  rise  to  nervous  complaints ;  and 
although  for  a  time  an  aid  to  digestion,  yet,  if  too  freely  in- 
dulged in,  it  will  weaken  the  sensibility  of  the  stomach  and 

*  The  converse  of  the  proposition  would  bear  rather  hard  upon  those  persons 
whose  constitutional  proclivities  prevent  their  use  of  the  beverage  altogether. 


METHODS   OF   MAKING  COFFEE.  75 

derange  its  functions.  Diluents  of  any  kind  in  large  quantities 
relax  the  coats  of  that  organ,  and  impair  its  efficiency.  Notwith- 
standing all  objections  alleged  against  the  use  of  this  favorite 
exotic,  it  is  constantly  and  extensively  growing  in  public  esteem 
as  an  exhilarating  drink,  possessing  the  good  qualities  of  wine 
without  any  of  its  bad  consequences.  It  is  indeed  a  sign  of  the 
good  time  coming,  that  there  have  been  opened  in  most  of  the 
great  cities  of  Europe  such  numerous  coffee-houses,  where,  in- 
stead of  the  dram-shop,  operatives  may  regale  themselves  with- 
out becoming  inebriates.  Even  in  its  early  days,  an  old  writer 
of  the  seventeenth  century  claimed  for  the  beverage  this  virtue, 
when  he  thus  quaintly  descants  upon  its  various  claims : 
"  Surely  it  must  needs  be  salutiferous,  because  so  many  sagacious 
and  the  wittiest  sort  of  nations  use  it  so  much.  But  besides  the 
exsiccant  quality,  it  tends  to  dry  up  the  crudities  of  the  stomach, 
as  also  to  comfort  the  brain,  to  f ortifie  the  sight  with  its  steeme, 
and  'tis  found  already  that  this  coffee-drink  has  caused  a  greater 
sobriety  among  the  nations.  For  wrhereas  formerly  apprentices 
and  clerks,  with  others,  used  to  take  their  morning's  draught  in 
ale,  beer,  or  wine,  which  by  the  dizziness  they  cause  in  the 
brain,  make  many  unfit  for  businesse,  they  use  now  to  play  the 
good-fellowTes  in  this  wakefull  and  civil!  drinke." 

The  roasting  of  coffee  in  the  best  manner  requires  great 
nicety,  since  much  of  the  quality  of  the  beverage  depends  upon 
the  operation.  It  is  usually  roasted  in  a  hollow  cylinder,  made 
of  perforated  sheet  iron,  wrhich  is  kept  turning  over  a  brisk  fire, 
to  prevent  any  part  from  being  more  heated  than  another,  and 
wrhen  the  coffee  has  assumed  a  deep  cinnamon  color,  and  an 
oily  appearance,  and  the  peculiar  fragrance  of  roasted  coffee 
is  perceived  to  be  sufficiently  strong,  it  should  be  taken  from 
the  fire,  well  shaken,  and  suffered  to  cool.  Not  more  than  half 
a  pound  of  coffee  should  be  roasted  at  once  for  domestic  use ; 
for  if  the  quantity  is  greater,  it  becomes  impossible  to  regulate 


76  METHODS  OF  MAKING  COFFEE. 

the  heat  in  such  a  manner  as  to  secure  a  good  result.  If  the 
heat  be  so  violent  as  to  burn  any  part,  the  whole  will  be  materi- 
ally injured.  The  coffee-roaster  should  never  be  filled  above 
one-third ;  for  by  roasting,  the  bulk  of  coffee  is  nearly  doubled, 
and  sufficient  space  ought  to  remain  to  allow  of  turning  the 
coffee  readily,  that  every  part  may  be  equally  exposed  to  the  heat. 

In  Italy  they  roast  coffee  in  small  quantities,  very  frequently 
in  one  of  the  thin  flasks  of  glass  used  for  oil,  which  answer  ex- 
tremely well  if  the  roasting  is  performed  over  a  charcoal  fire, 
and  the  coffee  shaken  and  turned  often.  The  non-conducting 
power  of  the  glass  is  thought  to  give  this  material  an  advantage 
over  metal,  as  being  less  liable  to  burn ;  added  to  which,  the 
progress  of  the  roasting  can  be  better  watched.  One  of  these 
flasks  will  roast  somewhat  less  than  a  quarter  of  a  pound  at  a 
time;  and  it  is,  perhaps,  worth  while  mentioning  that  this 
mode  is  often  found  useful  to  the  traveller. 

The  grinding  of  coffee  is  performed  by  iron  mills.  A  small 
portable  mill  is  commonly  used,  but  it  is  insufficient  for  the 
purposes  of  a  large  household,  as  it  holds  but  a  comparatively 
small  quantity.  When  larger  quantities  are  required  in  a 
family,  a  coffee-mill  of  a  larger  kind,  requiring  less  labor, 
is  fixed  against  the  wall ;  the  construction  of  the  mill  is 
about  the  same  in  both  instances,  and  being  familiar  to  most 
persons,  need  not  be  described.  This  is,  indeed,  an  indispen- 
sable machine  in  domestic  economy,  as  the  goodness  of  the  cof- 
fee depends  much  upon  its  being  fresh-ground.  Coffee  ought 
to  be  ground  sufficiently  fine,  in  order  that  the  w^ater  may  be 
enabled  to  penetrate  to  the  centre  of  the  particles  and  extract 
those  parts  upon  which  the  valuable  qualities  of  the  beverage 
depend.  When  coffee  is  very  highly  roasted,  so  as  to  develop 
the  greatest  quantity  of  bitter  aroma  without  burning,  it  is  ren- 
dered more  difficult  to  grind,  for  it  then  acquires  an  oily  surface, 
which  causes  the  kernels  to  slip  over  each  other,  and  hence  they 


METHODS   OF  MAKING  COFFEE. 

are  not  caught  so  readily  by  the  teeth  of  the  mill;  but  the 
powder,  when  obtained,  is  finer  than  if  the  coffee  had  been  less 
roasted,  because  it  is  rendered  more  friable. 

Roasted  coffee,  as  before  stated,  loses  much  of  its  flavor 
by  exposure  to  the  air;  on  the  other  hand,  while  raw 
it  not  only  does  not  lose  its  flavor,  but  actually  improves  by 
keeping.  That  the  fine  aromatic  flavor  of  good  coffee,  which 
is  one  of  its  chief  recommendations,  depends  upon  some  prin- 
ciple that  is  extremely  volatile,  a  little  observation  will  render 
evident.  If  a  cup  of  the  best  coffee  be  placed  upon  a  table 
boiling  hot,  it  will  fill  the  room  with  its  fragrance ;  but  the 
coffee,  when  warmed  again  after  being  cold,  will  be  found  to 
have  lost  most  of  its  flavor.  The  fragrance  diffused  through  the 
air  is  a  sure  indication  in  what  manner  it  was  dissipated ;  and 
therefore  it  is  evident  that  in  preparing  coffee  every  possible 
endeavor  should  be  made  to  preserve  this  precious  part  of  the 
beverage.  To  have  coffee  in  perfection,  it  should  be  roasted 
and  ground  just  before  it  is  to  be  used,  and  more  should  not  be 
ground  at  a  time  than  is  wanted  for  immediate  use ;  or  if  it  be 
necessary  to  grind  more,  it  should  be  kept  close  from  the  air. 
The  best  method  of  preparing  a  beverage  from  coffee,  or,  as  it 
is  termed,  making  coffee,  is  a  subject  that  has  received  a  good 
deal  of  attention. 

To  clear  coffee  rapidly,  a  variety  of  substances  are  used ; 
namely,  white  of  eggs,  isinglass,  skins  of  eels  or  soles,  hartshorn 
shavings,  etc.,  for  it  is  found  that  coffee  not  cleared  has  always 
an  unpleasant  bitter  taste.  In  order  that  the  clearing  sub- 
stances may  produce  their  full  effect,  they  should  be  dissolved 
before  mixing  with  the  coffee.  In  this  manner,  with  good  mate- 
rials in  sufficient  quantity,  and  proper  care,  excellent  coffee  may 
be  made,  and  most  of  the  valuable  properties  of  the  coffee  ex- 
tracted. 

The  difficulty  of  making  and  clearing  coffee  has  led  to  a 


78  METHODS  OF  MAKING   COFFEE. 

great  variety  of  inventions,  one  of  the  most  noted  being  Count 
Rumford's  percolator,  in  which  the  ground  coffee  is  compressed 
between  two  metallic  diaphragms,  so  that  the  boiling  water 
shall  percolate  slowly  through  the  mass.  TKere  is  also  the 
Fountain  coffee-maker,  in  which  a  body  of  steam,  passing  up- 
wards through  the  body  of  ground  coffee,  carries  over  the  infu- 
sion, which  collects  in  a  chamber. 

Another  apparatus  is  the  pneumatic  filter,  by  which  the  per- 
colation of  the  coffee  is  expedited  and  rendered  more  complete. 

Having  thus  shown  the  various  methods  and  principles  by 
which  coffee  is  prepared  in  different  countries,  it  may  not  be  in- 
appropriate to  add  that  Yankee  ingenuity  has  not  been  idle  in 
trying  to  solve  the  problem  as  to  how  this  beverage  can  best  be 
made.  There  have  been  about  one  hundred  and  seventy-five 
patents  granted  by  the  United  States  Patent  Office  for  coffee- 
pots alone,  embracing  every  possible  contrivance  by  which  the 
bean  can  be  prepared  as  a  beverage ;  and  while  so  many  are 
seeking  this  "  arcanum,"  we  find  some  of  the  devices  both  curious 
and  ingenious.  There  is  a  patent  granted  for  placing  a  furnace 
in  the  coffee-pot;  another  with  curious  strainers  and  attach- 
ments to  receive  the  grounds;  again  another  with  arrange- 
ments to  prevent  lateral  tipping  when  tilting  the  coffee-pot; 
patents  for  strainers  connected  with  springs  attached  to  the  noz- 
zle ;  others  with  hot-water  jackets,  and  some  with  condensers 
in  the  lids  to  catch  the  aroma ;  some  to  hold  both  coffee  and 
tea,  to  be  made  at  the  same  time  in  different  compartments ; 
— and  so  the  list  could  be  continued  at  length,  showing  the 
claims  of  the  many  inventive  geniuses  w^ho  have  given  their 
attention  to  this  subject. 

We  will  conclude  by  referring  to  one  of  the  latest  patents, 
which,  if  judged  from  its  success  and  the  praises  it  has  received 
from  those  who  have  used  it,  is  destined  to  become  the  general 
economizer  and  only  true  method  of  preparing  coffee.  Its  con- 


METHODS  OF  MAKING  COFFEE.  79 

struction  is  very  simple,  consisting  of  an  outer  shell  or  reser- 
voir enclosing  a  plain  coffee-pot,  containing  the  coffee  with 
the  required  quantity  of  cold  water.  This  is  placed  over  a  pan 
or  receiver  which  boils  water  and  generates  steam.  The  steam 
envelopes  and  completely  surrounds  the  inner  pot  containing 
the  coffee  and  water,  which  gradually  becomes  heated,  but  never 
fioils,  thus  perfectly  distilling  the  coffee.  By  this  process  the 
coffee  does  not  become  black,  bitter,  or  stale,  and  can  be  served 
at  any  time,  with  all  the  rich,  oily,  and  fragrant  aroma  of  the 
bean.  As  the  inner  pot  is  air-tight,  coffee  made  in  this  way  is 
stronger  and  incomparably  superior  in  flavor  to  that  produced 
by  any  other  method.  Nothing  is  lost  in  evaporation  nor  at- 
mospheric action ;  all  the  fine  aroma  and  food  properties  are 
held  in  solution,  and  the  coffee  is  extracted  by  the  action  of 
steam  surrounding  every  part  of  the  vessel  containing  the  fluid. 
The  bitter  taste  other  methods  produce  and  the  oxidation  of 
the  acids  are  avoided,  and  the  coffee  always  remains  palatable 
and  agreeable  to  the  taste.  This  process  requires  no  substance 
of  any  kind  to  clear  the  coffee  ;  the  grounds  settle  at  the  bottom 
by  their  own  gravity,  after  the  rich  properties  of  the  coffee  are 
fully  distilled.  It  is  perfectly  pure,  and  is  poured  from  the 
coffee-pot  as  clear  as  amber,  and  resembling  wine. 

The  infusion  is  superior  as  a  beverage  to  that  made  by  any 
other  method  yet  discovered,  besides  consuming  less  coffee ;  and 
as  it  is  a  simple  and  economical  utensil,  coming  within  the 
means  of  all  who  use  coffee,  it  has  the  further  advantage  of  hav- 
ing no  complicated  mechanism  likely  to  get  out  of  order,  and 
difficult  to  keep  clean.  If  the  advantages  really  existing  in  the 
last-mentioned  system  are  once  understood,  the  benefits  reaped 
by  all  the  consumers  of  pure  coffee  throughout  the  world  will 
more  than  realize  the  most  sanguine  hopes  of  philanthropy  in 
extending  the  universal  use  of  the  beverage  so  palatable  to  the 
rich,  so  healthful  and  invigorating  to  the  laboring  classes. 


ANALYSIS   AND  ADULTERATIONS. 

COFFEE  has  been  analyzed  by  various  chemists,  but  the  results 
of  their  analyses  are  far  from  being  uniform.  Raw  coffee  con- 
tains a  yellowish-brown  transparent  extract,  to  which  the  name 
of  caffeine  has  been  given,  and  which  constitutes  the  characteris- 
tic portion  of  coffee.  Coffee  also  contains  a  resinous  matter,  an 
oil,  or  fatty  substance,  an  aromatic  principle,  and  some  tannin  and 
gallic  acid.  Six  pounds  of  coffee  give  ninety  grains  of  caffeine, 
a  proximate  principle  remarkable  for  containing  21.54  per  cent. 
of  nitrogen,  which  is  a  larger  quantity  than  is  found  in  most 
other  vegetables  ;  it  is  a  crystallizable  salt,  of  a  bitter  taste,  pro- 
ducing an  exhilarating  effect  when  taken  in  four  or  five  grains, 
such  as  is  felt  when  good  coffee  is  drunk.  It  was  first  discovered 
by  Runge  in  1820,  and  it  is  considered  by  Liebig  as  nearly  iden- 
tical, if  not  quite  so,  with  theine,  a  principle  existing  in  tea. 

Raw  coffee  contains  about  five  per  cent,  of  an  astringent  acid, 
— the  caffeine,  or  coffee  tonic,  which  does  not  blacken  a  solu- 
tion of  iron,  as  the  infusion  of  tea  does,  but  renders  it  green, 
and  does  not  precipitate  solutions  of  gelatine.  This  acid  is 
changed  to  some  extent  during  the  roasting,  but  still  retains  a 
portion  of  its  astringent  properties,  and  contributes  in  some  de- 
gree to  the  effects  which  the  infusion  of  coffee  produces  upon 
the  system. 

But  the  coffee-bean  contains  about  thirteen  per  cent,  of  nutri- 
tious gluten,  which,  as  in  the  case  of  tea,  is  very  sparingly  dis- 
solved by  boiling  water,  and  is  usually  thrown  away  in  the 


ANALYSIS  AND  ADULTERATIONS  OF  COFFEE.      81 

insoluble  dregs  of  the  coffee.  Among  some  of  the  Eastern 
nations  the  custom  prevails  of  drinking  the  grounds  along  with 
the  infusion  of  the  coffee ;  in  these  cases  the  full  benefit  is  ob- 
tained from  all  the  positively  nutritive  matter  which  the  roasted 
coffee  contains. 

It  has  been  found  that  1,000  grains  of  the  wood,  leaves,  and 
twigs  of  the  coffee-tree  yielded  33  grains  of  ashes,  or  3.300  per 
cent.  The  ashes  consist  of  potass,  lime,  alumina,  and  iron  in 
the  state  of  carbonates,  sulphates,  muriates,  and  phosphates, 
and  a  small  portion  of  silica.  According  to  Liebig's  classifica- 
tion of  plants,  the  coffee-tree  falls  under  the  description  of 
those  noted  for  their  preponderance  of  lime.  Thus  the  pro- 
portions in  the  coffee-tree  are — 

Lime  salts 77 

Potass  salts 20 

Silica 3 

100 

Coffee  contains  a  considerable  quantity  of  fixed  oil  and  an 
astringent  acid  allied  to  the  taniiic.  The  following  is  the  aver- 
age composition  of  raw  coffee  : — 

Woody  matter 34 

Water 12 

Fatty  matter 13 

Gum,  sugar,  and  Caffeic  acid 18 

Caffeine 2 

Azotized  matter  analogous  to  legumin 13 

Saline  matter,  essential  oils,  etc 8 

100 

It  may  be  interesting  to  mention  among  the  curiosities  of 
chemistry,  that  a  most  magnificent  purple  dye  can  be  prepared 
from  the  alkaloid  of  coffee.  It  is  analogous  to  the  dye  which 
produced  the  famous  Tyrian  purple,  unsurpassed  for  its  per- 
fection and  permanence  of  tint. 
4* 


82  ANALYSIS  AND  ADULTERATIONS  OF  COFFEE. 

A  higher  aroma  would  make  the  inferior  varieties  of  Ceylon, 
Jamaica,  and  Brazilian  coffees  nearly  equal  in  value  to  the  finest 
Javas  ;  and  if  the  oil  could  be  bought  for  the  purpose  of  im- 
parting this  flavor,  it  would  be  worth  in  the  market  as  much  as 
five  hundred  dollars  an  ounce.  How  it  comes — by  what  slow 
chemical  change  within  the  bean,  that  causes  coffee  of  the  most 
inferior  quality  so  to  ripen  by  keeping  as  to  become  equal  to 
Mocha — we  do  not  yet  know. 

Coffee  is  supposed  to  owe  its  refreshing  character  to  this 
peculiar  chemical  principle,  Caffeine.  This  substance  belongs 
to  the  class  of  azotized  basic  bodies,  and  from  its  presence  in 
two  substances  so  dissimilar  as  tea  and  coffee,  both  of  which 
are  in  such  general  use  all  over  the  world,  it  may  be  supposed 
to  be  of  no  small  importance  to  our  animal  economy.  Liebig 
has  shown  that  the  composition  of  caffeine  is  closely  related 
to  that  of  various  animal  products,  and  that  there  is  reason 
to  believe  that  it  may  assist  in  the  secretion  of  bile.  A  pound 
of  coffee  yields  by  sublimation,  on  an  average,  about  15  grains 
of  caffeine.  It  may  also  be  obtained  from  an  infusion  of 
raw  coffee,  when  certain  impurities  have  been  removed  by 
subacetate  of  lead,  and  the  excess  of  lead  by  sulphuretted 
hydrogen.  It  forms  white  silky  crystals,  which  are  sparingly 
soluble  in  .cold  water.  It  has  a  mild,  bitter  taste.  The  pe- 
culiarly refreshing  and  stimulating  properties  of  coffee  are 
developed  in  the  roasting.  It  has  been  tested  that  coffee 
roasted  to  a  pale  brown  color  loses  12.3  per  cent. ;  to  a 
chestnut  brown,  18.5  per  cent. ;  and  to  a  black,  23.7  per  cent. 

The  chemical  changes  which  heat  produces  in  coffee,  accord- 
ing to  recent  authorities,  may  thus  be  epitomized :  the  brown 
bitter  substance  and  the  aromatic  principle  are  produced  by  the 
decomposition  of  that  part  of  the  coffee-bean  which  is  soluble 
in  water;  and  a  large  part  of  the  caffeine  disappears  during 
the  roasting.  It  is  said  that  this  (caffeine)  is  carried  away  with 


ANALYSIS  AND  ADULTERATIONS  OF  COFFEE.  83 

the  volatile  products  generated  in  the  operation.  By  roasting 
coffee  in  an  apparatus  which  allows  of  the  recovery  of  all  the 
volatile  products,  it  has  been  ascertained  that  if  it  be  car- 
ried away  with  the  volatile  products,  it  can  only  be  in  such 
small  quantity  as  to  be  inappreciable  by  weight,  and  cannot  ex- 
plain the  considerable  loss  which  takes  place  during  roasting, 
carefully  performed.  The  loss  is  experimentally  found  to 
equal  nearly  one-half  of  the  caffeine  originally  existing  in  the 
coffee.  M.  "Wurtz  has  demonstrated  that  the  lost  caffeine  has 
been  transformed  into  a  volatile  base  methylamine,  or  methyl- 
ammonia  (C4  H6  N).  The  following  are  the  facts  which  prove 
the  change  of  caffeine  into  methylamine  during  coffee-roasting. 
"  If  pure  caffeine  be  submitted  to  the  action  of  heat,  and  the 
vapor  be  carried  through  a  tube  heated  to  about  300°  Centi- 
grade (about  the  heat  which  is  necessary  for  roasting),  and  filled 
with  fragments  of  pumice-stone,  which  delay  the  passage  of 
the  vaporized  matters,  only  a  feeble  decomposition  occurs ;  the 
greater  part  remains  unchanged,  and  the  little  that  is  decom- 
posed gives  no  characteristic  product  except  cyanogen.  This 
experiment  tends  to  prove  that  it  is  not  the  caffeine  which 
furnishes  the  volatile  alkaloid  existing  in  roasted  coffee.  But  a 
very  different  result  is  obtained  if,  instead  of  acting  on  free 
caffeine,  we 'experiment  on  caffeine  in  analogous  circumstances 
to  those  in  which  it  exists  in  green  coffee.  It  is  easy  to  extract 
the  alkaloid  from  roasted  coffee  by  distilling  the  extract  of  cof- 
fee, made  with  cold  water,  with  a  weak  base,  such  as  lime. 
The  addition  of  this  alkali  to  an  infusion  of  coffee  immediately 
liberates  the  methylamine,  the  special  ammoniacal  odor  of 
which  is  readily  perceptible." 

In  tea  the  proportion  of  volatile  oil  amounts  to  about  one 
pound  in  a  hundred  of  the  dried  leaf,  but  in  roasted  coffee  it 
rarely  amounts  to  more  than  one  in  fifty  thousand  !  And  yet 
on  the  different  proportions  of  this  oil  which  they  severally 


84:  ANALYSIS  AND  ADULTERATIONS   OF  COFFEE. 

contain,  the  aroma  and  the  consequent  estimation  in  the  market 
of  the  different  varieties  of  coffee  in  a  great  measure  depend. 

The  action  of  coffee  on  the  human  system  is  due  chiefly  to 
the  empyreumatic  oil,  and  consequently  is  greatest  when  roast- 
ed ;  but  its  extractive  and  also  nitrogenous  principle,  caffeine, 
must  exert  considerable  influence  upon  the  organs  of  digestion. 
"  Coffee  acts  powerfully  and  peculiarly  on  the  ganglionic  system 
of  nerves-  and  their  ramifications,  and  all  the  organs  which  are 
supplied  by  them.  It  elevates  the  vitality  of  these  nerves,  and 
quickens  all  their  actions.  The  brain  is  also,  in  a  similar  man- 
ner, acted  upon  by  it ;  and  hence  the  increased  sensibility  and 
energy  of  that  organ  during  the  use  of  coffee,  and  the  removal 
of  all  sense  of  fatigue  and  disposition  to  sleep.  Upon  this  de- 
pends, in  addition  to  its  local  influence  upon  the  organs  of  diges- 
tion, the  utility  of  coffee  in  counteracting  the  effects  of  narcotic 
poisons,  such  as  opium  or  belladonna ;  and  the  favor  it  has 
found  among  literary  persons,  from  enabling  them  to  carry  on 
their  studies  through  the  midnight  hours  without  feeling  op- 
pressed by  sleepiness.  It  also  excites  the  vascular  system,  and 
renders  more  powerful  the  contractions  of  all  the  muscles,  both 
voluntary  and  involuntary."  Its  physiological  effects  upon 
the  system,  as  far  as  they  have  been  investigated,  appear  to  be, 
that  while  it  makes  the  brain  more  active,  it  soothes  the  body 
generally,  makes  the  change  and  waste  of  matter  slower  and 
the  demand  for  food  consequently  less.  According  to  a  recent 
authority,  over  seventeen  hundred  separate  works  have  been 
published  on  that  prevalent  malady — indigestion — with  specifics 
for  its  cure  :  notwithstanding  this  formidable  array  of  specifics 
and  prescriptions,  we  are  backed  by  professional  authority 
when  we  venture  to  suggest  yet  one  more,  to  wit — a  cup  of 
good  coffee,  without  the  admixture  of  either  milk  or  sugar.  It 
is  occasionally  useful  in  relieving  headache,  especially  the  form 
called  nervous.  It  has  also  been  employed  as  a  febrifuge  in 


ANALYSIS  AND  ADULTERATIONS   OF   COFFEE.  85 

intermittents,  as  a  stomachic  in  some  forms  of  dyspepsia,  and  as 
a  stimulant  to  the  cerebro-spinal  system  in  some  nervous  dis- 
orders. Flayer,  Percival,  and  others  have  used  it  in  spasmodic 
asthma  5  and  Laennec  says :  "  I  have  myself  seen  several  cases  in 
which  coffee  was  really  useful.  The  immoderate  use  of  coffee, 
on  the  other  hand,  is  said  to  produce  nervous  symptoms,  such 
as  anxiety,  tremor,  disordered  vision,  palpitation,  and  feverish- 
ness."  We  find  the  following  remarks  regarding  the  chemical 
properties  of  caffeine  :  "  Mulder  gave  a  grain  of  it  to  a  rabbit ; 
the  animal  ate  but  little  the  next  day,  and  aborted  the  day  after. 
Liebig  has  suggested  that  it  probably  contributes  to  the  forma- 
tion of  taurine,  the  nitrogenized  constituent  of  bile.  Accord- 
ing to  Lehmann,  caffeine  in  doses  of  from  two  to  ten  grains 
causes  violent  excitement  of  the  vascular  and  nervous  systems, 
palpitations  of  the  heart,  and  often  intermission  of  pulse,  sleep- 
lessness, and  delirium." 

Dr.  Hassall  thus  describes  the  structure  of  the  coffee-seed : 
"  Two  parts  are  to  be  discriminated  in  the  coffee-berry,  and  the 
testa  or  investment  by  which  it  is  surrounded.  The  berry, 
previous  to  roasting,  and  even  after  it  has  been  soaked  for  a 
long  time  in  water,  is  hard  and  tough,  in  which  respect  it  dif- 
fers from  all  those  substances  which  enter  into  the  adulteration 
of  coffee,  and  which  become  softened  by  immersion  in  cold 
water.  The  hardness  is  even  retained  subsequently  to  the  char- 
ring, and  is  so  great,  that  by  this  character  alone  the  fragments 
of  the  ground  and  roasted  coffee-berry  may  be  readily  distin- 
guished from  those  of  chiccory.  It  consists  of  an.  assemblage  of 
vesicles  or  cells  of  an  angular  form,  which  adhere  so  firmly  to- 
gether that  they  break  up  into  pieces  rather  than  separate  into 
distinct  and  perfect  cells.  The  cavities  of  the  cells  include, 
in  the  form  of  little  drops,  a  considerable  quantity  of  aromatic 
volatile  oil,  on  the  presence  of  which  the  fragrance,  and  many 
of  the  active  principles  of  the  berry  mainly  depend.  The  testa, 


86  ANALYSIS  AND  ADULTERATIONS  OF  COFFEE. 

or  investing  membrane,  presents  a  structure  very  different  from 
that  of  the  substance  of  the  berry  itself,  and  when  once  seen  it 
cannot  be  confounded  with  any  other  tissue  wThich  has  yet  been 
observed  entering  into  the  adulteration  of  coffee;  it  is  made  up 
principally  of  elongated  and  adherent  cells,  forming  a  single 
la}^er,  and  having  oblique  markings  upon  their  surfaces ;  these 
cells  rest  upon  another  thin  membrane  which  presents  an  indis- 
tinct fibrous  structure." 

The  seeds,  improperly  called  berries,  of  Arabia  or  Mocha 
coffee  are  small,  of  a  dark  yellow  color ;  those  of  Java  and  the 
East  Indies  are  larger,  and  of  a  paler  yellow;  while  those  of 
the  West  Indies  and  Brazil  possess  a  bluish  or  greenish- 
gray  tint.  The  dried  fruits  or  berries  are  rarely  imported; 
occasionally  the  seeds  contained  in  their  endocarp  or  husks, 
however,  are  met  with  in  commerce. 

The  practice  of  adulterating  food  originates  with  dishonest 
men,  who  take  this  means  of  underselling  their  honest  neigh- 
bors in  the  same  business ;  and  it  is  to  the  interest  of  all  who 
prize  integrity  and  fair  dealing,  to  lend  their  aid  in  suppress- 
ing frauds  which  so  generally  affect  the  public  health.  Foreign 
substances,  such  as  we  describe,  are  mixed  with  coffee  to  in- 
crease the  weight  and  bulk  and  reduce  the  cost,  and  every 
pound  is  a  direct  damage  to  consumers,  who  fail  to  realize  the 
healthful  effects  of  pure  coffee. 

There  are  few  articles  of  consumption  which  have  been 
subjected  to  more  extensive  adulteration  than  coffee.  The 
most  prevalent  adulteration  is  that  of  chiccory;  and  it  has 
frequently  been  urged  in  extenuation  of  the  fraud  that  chiccory 
improves  the  flavor  of  coffee ;  but  this  opinion  is  not  held  by 
most  chemists.  Persons  who  have  had  their  taste  vitiated 
by  using  the  two  in  combination,  may  even  prefer  it  to  pure 
coffee ;  but,  as  Dr.  Hassall  remarks,  "  had  they  the  opportunity 
of  partaking  of  well-prepared  and  unadulterated  coffee,  they 


ANALYSIS  AND   ADULTERATIONS  OF   COFFEE.  87 

would  not  be  long  before  they  acknowledged  the  infinite 
superiority  of  the  genuine  beverage  even  as  a  matter  of  taste." 

If  chiccory  were  an  improvement  when  mixed  with  coffee,  it 
ought  to  be  good  by  itself ;  but  any  one  who  has  tasted  the  bit- 
ter, muddy,  and  nauseating  infusion  of  this  root  is  aware  that 
only  when  mixed  and  partially  disguised  with  coffee  can  it  be 
drunk  at  all ;  between  the  two  articles  there  is  no  analogy  what- 
ever ;  besides,  chiccory  has  properties  of  its  own  which  are  de- 
cidedly injurious ;  when  taken  only  in  moderate  quantities 
chiccory  is  not  at  first  injurious  to  health,  but  by  its  prolonged 
and  frequent  use  it  produces  heartburn,  cramps,  loss  of  appe- 
tite, acidity  in  the  mouth,  and  cloudiness  of  the  senses.  It  is 
the  opinion  of  the  eminent  oculist,  Professor  Beer,  of  Yienna, 
that  the  continual  use  of  chiccory  seriously  affects  the  nervous 
system,  and  gives  rise  to  blindness,  without  any  visible  defect 
in  the  eyes  except  an  immovable  pupil. 

The  ground  coffee  sold  by  the  grocers  is  to  a  great  extent 
adulterated.  The  principal  substances  used  for  this  purpose 
are  roasted  chiccory  and  roasted  beans,  peas,  and  corn.  This 
fraud  may  readily  be  detected  as  follows :— "  A  spoonful  of 
pure  coffee,  placed  gently  on  the  surface  of  a  glass  of  cold 
water,  will  float  for  some  time,  and  scarcely  color  the  liquid ; 
if  it  contains  chiccory,  it  will  rapidly  absorb  the  water,  and, 
sinking  to  the  bottom  of  the  glass,  communicate  a  deep 
reddish-brown  tint  as  it  falls.  Another  method  of  applying 
this  test  is  by  expertly  shaking  a  spoonful  of  the  suspected 
coffee  with  a  wine-glassful  of  cold  water,  and  then  placing  the 
glass  upon  the  table.  If  it  is  pure  it  will  rise  to  the  surface, 
and  scarcely  color  the  liquid ;  but  if  chiccory  is  present  it  will 
sink  to  the  bottom,  and  the  water  will  be  tinged  of  a  deep  red 
as  before.  Roasted  corn,  beans,  etc.,  may  be  detected  by  the 
cold  decoction  striking  a  blue  color  with  tincture  of  iodine. 
Pure  coffee  is  merely  deepened  a  little  in  color  by  this  sub- 


88  ANALYSIS  AND  ADULTERATIONS  OF  COFFEE. 

stance.  Under  the  microscope,  the  presence  of  chiccory  may  be 
readily  detected  by  the  size,  form,  and  ready  separation  of  the 
cells  of  the  cellular  tissue,  and  by  the  presence  and  abundance 
of  the  pitted  tissue  or  dotted  ducts,  and  vascular  tissue  or 
spiral  vessels.  Roasted  corn,  and  other  amylaceous  substances, 
may  also  be  detected  in  the  same  way,  by  the  peculiar  size  and 
character  of  their  starch-grains." 

Chiccory  is  a  wild  endive,  which  is  now  extensively  cultivated 
in  Germany,  France,  Belgium,  and  some  parts  of  England  and 
the  United  States.  Even  chiccory  itself  is  sometimes  adultera- 
ted ;  as  we  learn  from  Johnston,  who  says :  "  The  coffee-dealer 
adulterates  his  coffee  with  chiccory,  to  increase  his  profits ;  the 
chiccory-maker  adulterates  his  chiccory  with  Venetian  red,  to 
please  the  eye  of  the  coffee-dealer ;  and,  lastly,  the  Venetian, 
red  manufacturer  grinds  up  his  color  with  brick-dust,  that  by 
his  greater  cheapness,  and  the  variety  of  shades  he  offers,  he 
may  secure  the  patronage  of  the  trade  in  chiccory ! "  After 
this  little  expose -,  who  will  not  be  disposed  to  prize  a  gua- 
ranteed cup  of  pure  coffee  ?  Pure  coffee,  indeed,  is  a  rarity. 
The  so-called  "  Coffee  extract "  is  almost  universally  found 
to  be  nothing  but  caramel — burnt  sugar  mixed  with  chiccory 
and  a  little  Rio  coffee :  and  this  fabrication  is  the  coffee  one 
meets  with  usually  on  board  steamboats  or  at  railroad  stations. 
The  Germans  use  acorns  ground  up  for  coffee,  and  do  not 
object  to  the  drink.  The  roasted  seeds  of  the  water-iris  are 
said  to  approach  very  closely  in  flavor  to  coffee  itself.  Sub- 
stances mixed  with  coffee,  or  substitutes  for  the  berry 
altogether,  have  been  tried  with  various  degrees  of  success. 
Roasted  acorns,  when  ground,  have  been  made  to  pass  for  it. 
The  infusion  of  the  lupin  does  duty  for  it  among  the  peasantry 
of  Flanders ;  also  that  of  roasted  rye,  one  of  the  nearest 
counterfeits  of  coffee  ;  in  the  United  States  another  adultera- 
tion is  dandelion,  which  possesses  also  a  soporific  nature. 


ANALYSIS  AND  ADULTERATIONS  OF  COFFEE.  89 

There  are  other  substitutes  for  coffee  besides  roasted  seeds  of 
the  water-iris  :  %the  chick-pea,  beans,  rye  and  other  grains,  nuts, 
almonds,  and  even  wheaten  bread,  the  dried  and  roasted  roots 
of  the  turnip,  carrot,  and  asparagus.  Also,  horse-beans  roasted 
with  a  little  honey  or  sugar ;  the  nut  of  the  sassafras-tree,  or 
the  wood  cut  into  chips ;  beet-root,  sliced  and  dried  in  a  kiln 
or  oven ;  and  many  more  ;  all  of  which,  however,  possess  little 
or  none  of  the  exhilarating  or  medicinal  properties  of  real 
coffee. 

Some  years  ago,  it  was  scarcely  possible  to  procure  a 
sample  of  ground  coffee  that  was  not  largely  adulterated, 
no  matter  what  the  price  paid  for  it;  and  in  some  instances 
the  coffee,  so-called,  consisted  almost  entirely  of  chiccory. 
In  1850,  a  firm  in  Liverpool  actually  took  out  a  patent  for 
moulding  chiccory  into  the  shape  of  berries ;  they  appear 
to  have  been  induced  to  do  so  in  consequence  of  the  exis- 
tence of  a  Treasury  minute,  which  did  not  allow  the  sale  of 
chiccory  mixed  with  coffee,  without  printing  the  fact  on  each 
package  sold.  It  has  been  asserted  that  in  France  and  other 
continental  countries  the  use  of  chiccory  is  almost  universal. 
This  statement  Hassall  regards  as  incorrect.  He  says,  "We 
found  that  in  all  the  good  hotels  in  France  and  Germany  the 
coffee  served  up  was  genuine,  and  did  not  contain  a  particle  of 
chiccory ;  but  that  it  was  largely  employed,  either  separately  or 
mixed  with  coffee,  by  poor  persons  and  amongst  domestics,  for 
the  sake  of  economy, — chiccory  costing  less  than  half  the  price 
of  coffee."  The  differences,  chemical  and  physiological,  which 
exist  between  the  two  articles  are  thus  given:  "Coffee  is  the 
seed  of  a  plant,  and  it  contains  essential  oil,  or  caffeone,  caffeic 
acid,  and  a  peculiar  principle  termed  caffeine ;  each  of  these 
constituents  possesses  different  and  highly  important  properties, 
upon  which  the  value  of  coffee  mainly  depends. 

"  Chiccory  is  the  root  of  a  plant  belonging  to  the  family  of  the 


90  ANALYSIS  AND  ADULTEKATIONS   OF   COFFEE. 

dandelions.  It  contains  no  essential  oil,  tannic  acid,  or  alkaloid 
analogous  to  that  of  coffee.  The  chief  constituents  of  which  it 
is  made  up  when  roasted  are  a  little  gum,  sugar  partly  burned 
and  reduced  to  caramel,  coloring  matter,  and  insoluble  vege- 
table tissue."  It  is  evident,  therefore,  that  by  the  admixture  of 
chiccory  with  coffee,  the  active  properties  of  the  latter  are 
reduced,  since  between  the  two  articles  there  is  no  chemical 
analogy  whatever.  The  same  authority  also  refers  to  this 
subject  of  adulteration  of  coffee  with  another  article  named 
coffina,  made  and  introduced,  in  1851,  into  the  English 
market.  It  w^as  described  as  the  seed  of  a  Turkish  plant, 
which  was  found  to  be  highly  nutritious.  On  subjecting  it  to 
examination  with  the  microscope,  it  was  ascertained  to  consist 
of  the  roasted  seeds  of  some  leguminous  plant,  probably  a 
lentil.  Of  this  article  no  less  than  eighty  tons  were  offered  for 
sale  by  a  Scotch  house  at  about  $60  per  ton ;  that  is,  at  about 
3  cents  per  Ib.  "  On  this  single  transaction  the  revenue  would 
be  defrauded  of  no  less  a  sum  than  $22,200  and  the  public  of 
at  least  four  times  that  amount,  namely,  $90,000.  The  impor- 
tation of  about  100  tons  of  lupin -seed  from  Egypt  into 
Glasgow  has  led  to  the  conjecture  that  this  coffina  was  made 
from  it — a  conjecture,  it  is  believed,  correct." 

The  adulteration  of  coffee  in  some  cases  alters  and  reduces 
so  greatly  the  color  and  appearance  of  the  article,  as  well  as  of 
the  infusion  made  from  it,  that  the  use  of  coloring  matters  is  fre- 
quently necessitated.  One  of  these  is  burnt  sugar,  or  sugar-house 
molasses,  technically  known  in  the  trade  as  Black  Jack.  Another 
article,  used  sometimes  to  give  increased  color  to  adulterated 
ground  coffee,  is  Venetian  red,  or  some  other  analogous  ferrugi- 
nous earth.  The  adulterations  of  coffee  are  altogether  indefen- 
sible ;  and  notwithstanding  their  frequent  exposure,  both  at  home 
and  abroad,  they  still  to  a  great  extent  continue  to  be  practised. 
Some  years  since,  roasted  corn,  principally  rye,  was  largely 


ANALYSIS  AND  ADULTERATIONS  OF  COFFEE.  91 

sold,  and  employed  to  make  a  beverage  which,  by  a  fiction,  was 
dignified  by  the  name  of  coffee;  the  chief  argument,  inde- 
pendent of  price,  urged  in  favor  of  it  was  its  supposed 
nutritive  properties.  When  it  is  recollected,  however,  that 
the  starch  of  roasted  rye  is  in  part  reduced  to  the  condition 
of  charcoal,  it  will  at  once  be  perceived  that  its  nutritive 
qualities  cannot  be  very  great,  and  that  a  single  mouthful  of 
wholesome  bread  contains  more  nourishment  than  a  dozen  cups 
of  a  leverage  made  from  roasted  rye.  The  adulteration  of 
coffee  by  substances  so  cheap,  and,  for  the  purpose  to  which 
they  are  applied,  worthless  as  these,  is  a  gross  fraud,  requiring 
emphatic  condemnation,  and,  when  ascertained  to  be  practised, 
meriting  exposure  and  punishment.  The  following  tests  for 
the  detection  of  adulterations  in  coffee  have  been  suggested: 
"The  means  to  be  resorted  to  for  this  purpose  are  of  three 
kinds:  namely,  certain  physical  characters  and  appearances 
presented  by  adulterated  samples ;  the  microscope ;  and 
chemistry.  By  the  first,  we  ascertain  in  some  cases  the  general 
fact  whether  the  sample  is  adulterated  or  not;  and  by  the 
others,  especially  by  the  microscope,  we  learn  the  nature  of 
the  particular  adulteration  or  adulterations  practised.  The 
first  means  consist  in  noticing  whether  the  sample  in  the  mass 
cakes  or  coheres,  whether  it  floats  in  water  or  not,  and  the  color 
of  the  infusion.  If  the  ground  coffee  cakes  in  the  paper  in 
which  it  is  folded,  or  when  pressed  between  the  fingers,  there  is 
good  reason  for  believing  that  it  is  adulterated,  most  probably 
with  chiccory.  If,  when  a  few  pinches  of  the  suspected  coffee 
are  placed  upon  some  water  in  a  wine-glass,  part  floats  and 
part  sinks,  there  is  reason  to  believe  that  it  is  adulterated — it 
may  be  either  with  chiccory,  roasted  corn,  or  some  other 
analogous  substances.  The  coffee  does  not  imbibe  the  water, 
but  floats  on  the  surface,  while  the  other  substances  absorb  the 
water,  and  gradually  subside  to  the  bottom  to  a  greater  or  less 


92  ANALYSIS  AND  ADULTERATIONS  OF  COFFEE. 

extent.  Usually,  however,  part  of  the  coffee  subsides  with  the 
chiccoiy,  and  a  portion  of  the  latter  remains  on  the  surface  with 
the  coffee ;  and  after  the  lapse  of  a  short  time,  in  general,  both 
coffee  and  chiccory  fall  to  the  bottom.  Again,  if  the  cold  water 
to  which  a  portion  of  ground  coffee  has  been  added  quickly 
becomes  deeply  colored,  it  is  an  evidence  of  the  presence  of 
some  roasted  vegetable  substance  or  burnt  sugar;  for  when 
coffee  is  added  to  water,  it  becomes  scarcely  colored  for  some 
time.  Lastly,  if  in  a  few  grains  of  coffee  spread  out  on  a 
piece  of  glass,  and  moistened  with  a  few  drops  of  water,  we  are 
enabled  to  pick  out,  by  means  of  a  needle,  minute  pieces  of 
substance  of  a  soft  consistence,  the  coffee  is  doubtless  adulter- 
ated ;  for  the  particles  of  the  coffee-seed  are  hard  and  resisting, 
and  do  not  become  soft  even  after  prolonged  immersion  in  water. 
When,  therefore,  any  sample  cakes  into  a  mass,  quickly 
furnishes  to  cold  water  a  deep-colored  solution,  or  is  found  to 
contain,  when  moistened  with  water,  soft  particles  like  those  of 
bread-crumbs,  there  can  be  no  question  as  to  the  existence  of 
adulteration.  The  general  characters  of  genuine  ground  coffee 
are,  therefore,  the  reverse  of  the  above." 

By  these  general  means,  and  without  having  recourse  to 
science,  the  observer  is  often  enabled  to  state  whether  any  sam- 
ple of  coffee  is  adulterated  or  not ;  but,  in  order  to  determine 
the  character  of  the  adulteration  practised,  we  must  employ 
either  the  microscope  or  chemistry.  In  the  case  of  coffee,  by 
far  the  most  important  information-  is  furnished  by  the  micro- 
scope ;  indeed,  chemistry  affords  no  certain  means  for  the  iden- 
tification of  the  majority  of  the  vegetable  substances  employed 
in  the  adulteration  of  coffee,  and,  did  it  do  so,  it  would  hardly 
be  required,  since  these  may  be  so  readily  detected  by  the  mi- 
croscope. It  is  known  that  the  adulterations  of  coffee  are 
always  greatly  increased  by  a  high  duty  on  the  article,  which 
makes  the  admixture  of  all  farinaceous  substances  immensely 


ANALYSIS  AND  ADULTERATIONS   OF   COFFEE.  93 

profitable  to  roasters  and  dealers  in  prepared  coffee.  It  may  not 
be  amiss  to  here  state  that  one  of  the  principal  objects  of  this 
work  has  been  to  call  the  attention  of  all  consumers  of  coffee  to 
the  pernicious  effects  of  adulterations.  Coffee  now  being  on 
the  free  list,  and  paying  no  duty  when  imported  directly  from 
places  of  growth,  there  should  exist  no  excuse  to  continue  the 
adulteration  of  so  necessary  an  article  of  food.  If  a  little 
attention  is  given  by  large  dealers  and  direct  distributers 
throughout  the  country,  in  generally  informing  consumers  of 
the  economy  of  using  pure  coffee,  it  is  believed  that  the  busi- 
ness in  chiccory,  roasted  rye,  beans,  peas,  damaged  ship's  bread, 
stale  crackers,  bran,  and  all  other  such  substances  used  by  some 
coffee-roasters,  will  be  greatly  diminished  if  not  entirely  abo- 
lished. All  consumers  who  once  become  accustomed  to  the  use 
of  pure  coffee  will  with  reluctance  use  any  substitute  for  the 
berry,  for  none  has  ever  been  found  to  possess  the  advantages 
of  taste,  flavor,  and  the  invigorating  and  healthful  qualities  of 
unadulterated .  coffee. 

Some  twenty  years  ago,  it  was  estimated  that  18,000,000 
Ibs.  of  vegetable  matter  of  various  kinds  were  sold  annually 
under  the  deceptive  name  of  coffee,  while  three-fourths  of 
the  amount  consisted  of  chiccory.  The  various  substances  used 
in  adulterating  both  chiccory  and  coffee,  when  sold  in  the 
powdered  state,  have  been  specifically  pointed  out  as  ingredients 
prejudicial  to  health. 


TAKIFFS   OF  VAKIOUS   COUNTEIES. 


UNITED    STATES. 

1789— Section  1,  Act  July  1,  1789. 

Whereas,  it  is  necessary  for  the  support  of  government,  for 
the  discharge  of  the  debts  of  the  United  States,  and  the 
encouragement  and  protection  of  manufactures,  that  duties 
be  laid  on  goods,  wares,  and  merchandises  imported  from  and 
after  the  first  day  of  August  next  ensuing,  there  shall  be 
laid  on  all  Coffee  imported  into  the  United  States  from  any 
foreign  port  or  place,  per  pound 2^-  cts. 

1830— By  Act  of  Congress,  May  20,  1830,  Coffee  placed  upon  the  free 

list Free. 

1861 — Extract  of  Coffee  subjected  to  a  duty  by  Act  of  Congress,  March 
2,  1861,  section  24,  under  un-enumerated  manufactured  ar- 
ticles, to  pay  twenty  per  centum  ad- valorem 20$ 

1861— Eaw  Coffee  in  the  bean,  by  Act  of  Congress,  August  5,  1861, 

shall  pay  per  ft 4  cts. 

1861 — Raw  Coffee  in  the  bean  increased  by  Act  of  Congress,  December 

24,  1861,  Chapter  II. ,  shall  pay  per  ft,  gold 5  cts. 

1862— All  substitutes  (except  Chiccory),  by  Act  of  Congress,  July  14, 
1862,  section  8  : — on  Acorn  Coffee  and  Dandelion  root,  raw  or 
prepared,  and  all  other  articles  used  or  intended  to  be  used  as 
Coffee,  or  a  substitute  for  Coffee,  and  not  otherwise  provided 
for,  shall  pay  per  ft,  gold 3  cts. 

1864 — Chiccory  root,  by  Act  of  June  30,  1864,  section  II.,  raw,  per  ft, 

gold 4  cts. 

Chiccory  ground,  burnt,  or  prepared,  per  Ib,  gold 5  cts. 

1866 — Section  sixth  of  Act  passed  March  3,  1866.  On  all  goods,  wares, 
and  merchandise  of  the  growth  or  produce  of  countries  east 


96          TARIFFS  OF  VARIOUS  COUNTRIES. 

of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  when  imported  from  places  west 
of  the  Cape  of  G-ood  Hope,  a  duty  of  ten  per  centum,  ad- 
valorem,  in  addition  to  the  duties  imposed  on  any  such  arti- 
cle when  imported  directly  from  the  place  or  places  of  their 

growth  or  production 10^ 

(This  act  took  effect  April  1,  1866.) 

1870— By  Act  of  Congress,  July  14,  1870,  section  21,  coffee  reduced 

after  January  1,  1870,  to  per  fb,  gold 3  cts. 

1872— Act  of  May  1,  1872,  Coffee  placed  upon  the  free  list  from  July  1, 

1872 Free 

1872 — Act  of  June  6,  1872,  Chiccory  root,  ground  or  unground,  per  ft) .  1  ct. 
On  and  after  October  1,  1872,  on  all  goods,  wares,  and  mer- 
chandise of  the  growth  or  produce  of  countries  east  of  the 
Cape  of  Good  Hope,  when  imported  from  places  west  of  the 
Cape  of  Good  Hope,  a  duty  of  ten  per  centum,  ad-valorem,  in 
addition  to  the  duties  imposed  on  any  such  article,  if  any, 
when  imported  directly  from  the  place  or  places  of  their 

growth  or  production 10$ 

Total  consumption  in  1871,  316,609,765  Ibs. 

GREAT  BRITAIN. 

NOTE. — The  duties  on  coffees  in  foreign  countries  have  been  reduced  to  TJ.  S.  gold,  per  B> 
avoirdupois,  in  conformity  with  the  United  States  revenue  laws  in  force  at  the  New  York  Custom 
House. 

1660 — In  this  year  we  find  the  first  mention  of  Coffee  on  the  statute 
books  of  Great  Britain,  when  a  duty  of  four  pence  was  laid 
upon  every  gallon  of  Coffee,  made  and  sold,  to  be  paid  by  the 

maker.     Equal  per  gallon  to 8  cts. 

1789 — Coffee  from  British  possessions 21  cts. 

Coffee  from  East  Indies 49  cts. 

Total  consumption,  930,141  R)s. 

1801 — Coffee  from  British  possessions '35  cts. 

East  Indies 62£  cts. 

Total  consumption,  750,000  Ibs. 

1820 — Of  any  British  possession  in  America  or  Africa 24  cts. 

From  any  place  within  the  limits  of  the  East  India  Co.'s  charter   36  cts. 

All  others 60£  cts. 

Total  consumption,  7,000,000  R>s. 
1835 — Of  any  British  possession  in  America  or  within  the  limits  of  the 

East  India  Company'^  Charter,  or  of  Sierra  Leone  12  cts. 


TARIFFS    OF.  VARIOUS    COUNTRIES.  97 

Imported  from  any  British  possession  within  the  limits  of  the 

East  India  Company's  Charter,  not  being  the  produce  thereof.     18  cts. 

Imported  from  any  other  place  within  those  limits 25  cts. 

Otherwise " 30  cts. 

Total  consumption,  23,000,000  Ibs. 
1840 — Of  any  British  possession  in  America  or  within  the  limits  of  the 

East  India  charter  or  Sierra  Leone 12^  cts. 

Imported  from  any  British  possession  within  the  limits  of  the 

East  India  Charter,  not  being  the  produce  thereof 19  cts. 

Imported  from  any  place  within  those  limits 25f  cts. 

Otherwise 31 1*0  cts. 

Total  consumption,  28,000,000  Ibs. 

1857 — Raw  from  all  parts 6  cts. 

Kiln-dried,  roasted  and  ground 8  cts. 

Total  consumption,  34,334,000  Ibs. 

1871— Same  rates 6  cts. 

Estimated  total  consumption  in  1871,  40,000,000  Ibs. 

The  above  are  some  of  the  most  important  changes  in  the  tariff  of  Great 
Britain. 

FRANCE. 

1872— Coffee,  present  duty  per  R> - 5^-  cts. 

Coffee  in  French  vessels 4^  cts. 

SPAIN. 

Coffee  the  produce  of,  and  coming  direct  from  any  Spanish 
possession If  ct. 

Coffee  the  produce  of,  and  coming  from  foreign  countries 2£  cts. 

Extract,  Essence,  and  other  compounds  of  Coffee,  fifteen  per 
cent,  ad-valorem 15$ 

PORTUGAL. 

Coffee  in  the  shell If  ct. 

Coffee  cleaned 2$  cts. 

All  imitations,  including  chiccory,  also  Coffee  roasted  or  ground  2-17-0-  cts. 

TARIFF  ON  EXPORT  OF  COLONIES. 

Coffee  from  Cape  Verde 1  ct. 

Coffee  from  Angola ^  ct. 

Coffee  from  St.  Thome  and  Principe -^  ct. 

ITALY. 
Coffee  of  all  kinds 4  -ffc  cts. 


98  TARIFFS    OF    VARIOUS    COUNTRIES. 

GERMAN  ZOLLVEREIN. 

Coffee,  green 3£  cts. 

Coffee,  roasted 5  cts. 

AUSTRIA. 

Coffee,  green 3^  cts. 

Coffee,  roasted  or  burnt 4^-  cts. 

On  all  substitutes 3^  cts. 

SWITZERLAND. 
Coffee 3  cts. 

BELGIUM. 

Coffee,  green li  ct. 

Coffee,  roasted If  ct. 

DENMARK. 

Coffee 2i  cts. 

Extracts,  forty  per  centum  ad-valorem 40$ 

NORWAY. 

Coffee 4£  cts. 

Extracts,  forty  per  centum  ad-valorem 40$ 

SWEDEN. 

Coffee 2f  cts. 

On  any  preparation  or  substitute 4  cts. 

RUSSIA. 
Coffee  in  the  bean 3  cts. 

TURKEY. 

Coffee,  eight  per  centum  ad-valorem 8$ 

VICTORIA  (AUSTRALIA). 
Coffee  and  chiccory 4  cts. 

NEW  SOUTH  WALES. 
Coffee  and  chiccory 4  cts. 

NEW   ZEALAND. 
Coffee.   .  ....     6  cts. 


TARIFFS    OF  VAEIOUS    COUNTRIES.  99 

BRITISH  COLUMBIA. 
Coffee,  raw  ...............................  .  ...............       3  cts. 

HAWAIIAN  ISLANDS. 
Coffee  ......................  ..............................       3  cts. 

JAMAICA. 
Coffee  ....................................................       5  cts. 

BRITISH  HONDURAS. 
Coffee  ....................................................       2  cts. 

ISLAND  OF   ST.   CROIX. 

Coffee,  twelve  and  one-half  per  cent,  ad-  valorem 


ARGENTINE  REPUBLIC. 
Coffee,  twenty-five  per  cent,  ad-  valorem  .....................      25% 

CHINA  AND  JAPAN. 
Coffee  ....................................................     Free 

CEYLON. 

Coffee.  .  .  ........  Free 


100 


STATISTICAL  TABLES  OF  COFFEE. 

Table  showing  the  Imports  and  Consumption  of  Coffee  in  the 

United  States. 


IMPOKTS. 

CONSUMPTION. 

1871                .  .. 

322  700  479  Ibs 

316  609  765  Ibs 

1870  

282,540,737  " 

280,911,672  " 

1869  

242  609  255  " 

243441117  " 

1868 

238  012  079  " 

223  200  937  '; 

1867  

226,322,811  " 

203,506,671  " 

1866  

165392983  " 

159,918,881  " 

1865 

133  574  397  " 

128  146  356  '• 

1864  

145,304,957  " 

109,086,703  " 

1863    

75  269  417  u 

79,719,641  " 

1862  

98,558,680  " 

88,989,911  " 

1861  

182,244  627  " 

187,045,786  " 

1860  .     .     .     .  .. 

185779689  " 

177,111,993  " 

1859 

248  527  306  " 

226  610  300  " 

1858  

227,656,186  " 

251,255,099  " 

1857    

217  871  839  " 

172,565,934  " 

1856  

230,913,150  " 

218,225,490  " 

1855  

238,214,533  " 

218,378,287  " 

1854  

• 
182,473,853  " 

179,481,083  " 

1853 

193  112  300  " 

175.687,790  " 

1852  

"205,542,855  " 

204,991,595  " 

1851  

216,043,870  u 

184,225,700  k' 

STATISTICAL  TABLES  OF  COFFEE. 


101 


Table  showing  the  Consumption  of  the  Ports  of  the  United 

States. 


TAKEN  FEOM 

1871. 

1870. 

1869. 

1868. 

New  York 

157,842,920  Ibs. 

151,901,  952  Ibs. 

148,595,172  Ibs. 

148,220  831  Ibs 

Baltimore  
New  Orleans  

88,252,945    " 
34,647,550    " 

81,365,545    •' 
26,116,970    " 

56,731,710    " 
19,676,312    " 

39,890,900    " 
17,248,880    " 

Boston  
Philadelphia  

9,227,700    " 
5,441,130    " 

8,394,560    " 
1,941,945    " 

6,457,963    " 

4,347,420    " 

4,705,046    " 
8,030,360    " 

Other  Ports  

21,197,520    " 

11,190,700    " 

7,632,540    " 

5,104,920    " 

Total 

316,609,765    " 

280,911,672    " 

243,441,117    " 

223,200,937    " 

Increase  1871  over  1870 

1870    "    1869 

"         1869    "    1868... 


35,698,093  Ibs. 
37,470,555  " 
20,240,180  " 


Total  increase  three  years 93,408,828  Ibs. 


Table  showing  the    Consumption  of  the  various  Idnds   of 
Coffee  in  the  United  States  for  the  year  1871. 


Of  Brazil 

Of    Java,    Sumatra,    and    Singapore,    including    receipts 

direct  and  from  Europe 

Of  Maracaibo 

Of  Laguayra 

Of  Ceylon 

Of  St.  Domingo 

Of  Other  West  Indies 

Of  Central  American,  Mexican,  and  other  foreign 


244,809,600  Ibs. 

27,776,000  " 

14,784,000  " 

8,064,000  " 

5,824,000  " 

4,144,000  " 

4,480,000  " 

6,728,165  " 


316,609,765  Ibs. 


102 


STATISTICAL   TABLES   OF   COFFEE. 


Table  showing  the  Shipments  of  Coffee  from  the  Ports  of 
Rio  de  Janeiro  and  Santos. 


UNITED    STATES. 

EUROPE. 

ELSEWHERE. 

From  Rio  de  Janeiro 

1871-2.... 

172,804,960  Ibs. 

89,364,160  Ibs. 

10,701,440  Ibs. 

" 

1870-1.... 

238,106,880   " 

157,110,080    " 

10,380,000   " 

•• 

1869-70... 

186,296,480   '; 

125,391,520   " 

11,347,200   " 

From  Santos 

1871-2.... 

12,825,440   " 

41,630,080   " 

" 

1870-1.... 

12,288,160   " 

50,178,080   " 

" 

1869-70... 

.  13,334,400   " 

64,777,600   " 

Table  showing  the  yearly  average  Prices  of  Coffee  at 
New  York. 


1871. 

in. 

1869. 

Brazil,  Fair  to  Prime  Cargoes  .  .  . 

cts. 
21  -Mr        " 

cts. 
16  -fifc  per.  Ib. 

21.1% 

cts. 
15-^-per.lb. 

Maracaibo  and  Laguayra  

iTJWr      " 

St.  Domingo  

«flfc    - 

u& 

iWo- 

RETURN  TO: 


CIRCULATION  DEPARTMENT 
198  Main  Stacks 


LOAN  PERIOD     1 
Home  Use 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

ALL  BOOKS  MAY  BE  RECALLED  AFTER  7  DAYS. 

Renewals  and  Recharges  may  be  made  4  days  prior  to  the  due  date. 
Books  may  be  renewed  by  calling  642-3405. 


DUE  AS  STAMPED  BELOW. 

JUN  1  5  200 

3 

FORM  NO.  DD6                        UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA,  BERKELEY 
50M    5-02                                                Berkeley,  California  94720-6000 

GENERAL  LIBRARY  -  U.C.  BERKELEY 


WO        /      I     /    ^    I 

TL   6 i DO  I 


